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HOW  TO  TAKE  CARE 
OF  AN  AUTOMOBILE 
AT  SMALL  EXPENSE 


By  A.  Frederick  Collins 

The  Book  of  Wireless 
The  Book  of  Stars 
The  Book  of  Magic 
The  Book  of  Electricity 
Gas,  Gasoline  and  Oil 
Engines 

The  Amateur  Chemist 
The  Amateur  Mechanic 
How  to  Fly 

The  Home  Handy  Book 
Keeping  Up  with  Your 
Motor  Car 

D.  Appleton  & Company 
Publishers  New  York 


596  E 


HOW  TO  TAKE  CARE 
6f  AN  AUTOMOBILE 
AT  SMALL  EXPENSE 


WITH  COMPLETE  INSTRUCTIONS  FOR 
OPERATING 


REPAIRS  AND  HOW  TO  MAKE  THEM 


BY 


A.  FREDERICK  COLLINS 

MEMBER  AEBO  CLUB  OP  AMERICA 


AUTHOR  OP  “THE  BOOK  OP  WIRELESS,”  “THE  BOOK  OP  ELECTRICITY,” 
“THE  HOME  HANDY  BOOK,”  ETC.. 


FULLY  ILLUSTRATED 


D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY 
NEW  YORK  LONDON 


1920 


Copyright,  1917,  by 
D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY 


Printed  in  the  United  States  of  America 


TO  MY  NEPHEW 


RAYMOND  SAMUEL  ZEITLER 

INYENTOR — DESIGNER — BUILDER 


A WORD  TO  YOU 


Everybody  else  rides,  so  why  don’t  yon? 

This  is  the  age  of  power,  wheels,  and  speed,  and  yon 
ought  to  belong,  for  the  riding  is  fine. 

To  own  a motor  car  means  that  you  have  increased 
the  measure  of  your  life  tenfold,  not  by  tacking  on  so 
many  more  years  to  those  you  have  already  lived,  but 
by  living  that  much  faster  while  you  do  live. 

With  a car  you  can  go  everywhere  and  see  everything, 
and  this  takes  you  out  of  the  rut  of  an  ordinary  human 
being  and  puts  you  into  the  class  of  the  superman — 
takes  you  on  the  great  broad  highway  where  you  can 
see  a never-ending  panorama  of  the  glories  of  nature 
and  the  handiwork  of  her  puppet;:.  And  this  is  indeed 
living. 

Again,  there  is  your  health.  When  you  motor  you 
breathe  in  great  lungsful  of  oxygen — that  wonderful 
magnetic  gas  which,  if  it  is  not  life  itself,  is  the  great 
sustainer  of  life;  and  this  helps  to  give  you  physical 
strength,  to  preserve  your  mental  poise,  and  to  increase 
your  power  so  that  when  you  get  down  to  the  routine 
of  business  again  you  are  a regular  dynamo  for  work. 

These  are  the  good  things  about  owning  a motor  car, 
and  now  let’s  see  what’s  the  matter  with  it. 

You  may  have  thought  that  a car  is  beyond  your 
means  to  buy  and  beyond  your  salary  to  keep  up,  and 
so  it  is  apt  to  be  unless  you  know,  in  the  first  place, 
how  to  buy  one;  in  the  second  place,  how  to  treat  it 
after  you  get  it ; and  in  the  third,  the  right  thing  to  do 

vii 


A WORD  TO  YOU 


viii 

when  something  goes  wrong  with  it  at  whatever  old 
place  it  may  happen  to  stall. 

Not  to  know  these  things  will  make  a car  a burden  to 
any  man  of  ordinary  means,  but  if  you  will  take  a tip 
from  one  who  is  in  the  know — I have  examined  the 
working  specifications  of  159  different  makes  of  cars — 
you  will  find  that  it  is  almost  as  cheap  to  ride  on  air- 
inflated  tires  as  it  is  to  walk  on  rubber-heeled  shoes,  and 
it’s  a lot  more  pleasant,  too. 

So  now  get  in  with  me  for  a demonstration,  and  if  the 
car  rides  easy  and  it  is  all  that  you  think  it  ought  to 
be  for  the  money,  take  the  following  twelve  easy  les- 
sons and  be  glad. 

A.  Frederick  Collins. 

Biltmore  Chambers, 

Boston , Mass. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER 

I.  HOW  TO  BUY  A MOTOR  CAR 

The  Dominant  Idea;  Ways  to  Buy  a Car; 
Kinds  of  Cars  to  Buy;  On  Buying  a New 
Car;  Buying  a Cheap  Car;  Buying  a 
Medium-Priced  Car;  Buying  a High-Priced 
Car;  What’s  What  in  Car  Bodies;  Buying  a 
Car  on  Time  Payments ; The  Opulent  Man’s 
Way;  The  Salaried  Man’s  Way;  Buying  a 
Second-hand  Car. 

II.  LEARNING  TO  DRIVE  YOUR  CAR 

Lessons  from  a Demonstrator;  Running  the 
Car  Yourself;  Now  for  Some  Road  Work; 
Just  Before  You  Start;  Nest  Start  the  En- 
gine; When  the  Engine  Is  Running;  You 
Are  Ready  to  Go;  How  to  Shift  the  Gears; 
On  Direct  or  High  Gear;  To  Slow  Down 
and  Stop  the  Car;  How  to  Stop  the  Engine; 
Learning  to  Take  a Curve;  About  Backing 
Your  Car;  When  Going  Up  a Hill;  When 
Going  Down  a Hill;  When  on  Bad  Roads; 
What  to  Do  When  the  Car  Skids;  The 
Rules  of  the  Road;  To  Equalize  the  Trac- 
tion. 

in.  THE  VARIOUS  PARTS  OF  A CAR 

The  Main  Parts  of  a Car;  The  Running 
Gear  or  Chassis;  What  They  Are  Made  of 


PAGE 

1 


. 14 


. 31 


IS 


x CONTENTS 

CHAPTER 

and  How;  About  the  Power  Plant;  The 
Transmission  Mechanism ; The  Transmis- 
sion; Friction  Wheel  Transmission;  The 
Final  Drive;  The  Car  Body. 

IT.  HOW  THE  ENGINE  WORKS 

The  Gasoline  Engine ; The  Parts  of  a Gaso- 
line Engine;  How  the  Engine  Works;  How 
the  Valves  Are  Worked;  Timing  the 
Valves;  The  Exhaust  Gases;  How  an  En- 
gine Is  Built;  Diseases  of  the  Engine  and 
How  to  Cure  Them;  How  to  Calculate  the 
Horse  Power  of  Your  Engine;  The  Latest 
Word  in  Engines. 

T.  HOW  THE  GASOLINE  SYSTEM  WORKS 

What  the  Fuel  System  Is;  The  Simplest 
Form  of  Carburetor;  How  the  Carburetor 
Is  Made  and  Works;  The  Construction  and 
Operation  of  a Real  Carburetor ; About  Air 
and  Gasoline  Heaters;  Kinds  of  Fuel  Feed 
Systems;  What  Carburetion  Means;  About 
Buying  Gasoline;  Troubles  with  the  Fuel 
System  and  How  to  Fix  Them;  Where  the 
Fuel  Power  Goes. 

VI.  HOW  THE  IGNITION  SYSTEM  WORKS 

Kinds  of  Ignition  Systems;  The  Vibrator 
Spark  Coil  System;  The  Vibrator  Spark 
Coil ; How  a Spark  Plug  Is  Made ; A Timer 
for  a Single  Cylinder  Engine;  A Dis- 
tributor for  a Multi-cylinder  Engine;  The 
Magneto  Ignition  System;  The  Low  Ten- 
sion Magneto;  The  High  Tension  Mag- 
neto; The  Circuit  Breaker  Spark  Coil  Sys- 
tem; Why  the  Spark  Must  Be  Timed;  Dis- 


PAQB 


. 61 


. 78 


. 94 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

orders  of  the  Ignition  System  and  How  to 
Treat  Them. 

yil.  HOW  THE  OILING  SYSTEM  WORKS  . . 112 

The  Parts  of  a Car  to  Be  Oiled;  How  the 
Engine  Is  Oiled ; Kinds  of  Lubricating 
Systems;  How  the  Oil  Pump  Is  Made;  Oil 
Pressure  and  Pressure  Gauges;  About  En- 
gine Lubrication;  The  Kind  of  Oil  to  Use; 

What  Lubricating  Oils  Are  Made  of ; Trou- 
bles of  the  Oiling  System  and  How  to  Get 
Rid  of  Them ; What  to  Lubricate  the  Clutch 
With;  What  to  Lubricate  the  Transmission 
With;  What  to  Lubricate  the  Universal 
Joints  With;  What  to  Lubricate  the  Dif- 
ferential With;  What  to  Lubricate  the  Wa- 
ter Pump  With;  Your  Lubricating  Chart 
and  Schedule. 

VIII.  HOW  THE  COOLING  SYSTEM  WORKS  . 127 

The  Air  Cooled  Engine;  The  Water  Cooled 
Engine;  The  Thermo-syphon  System;  The 
Pump  Circulating  System;  Kinds  of  Wa- 
ter Pumps;  How  the  Radiator  Is  Made; 

The  Tubular  Radiator;  The  Cellular  Radi- 
ator; The  Combination  Fan  and  Water 
Cooling  System;  Keeping  the  Cooling  Sys- 
tem in  Good  Order;  What  to  Do  When 
Winter  Comes;  When  Zero  Weather  Sets 
In. 

IX.  HOW  THE  LIGHTING  AND  STARTING 

SYSTEMS  WORK  . . . .138 

The  Electric  Lighting  System;  The  Storage 
Battery ; The  Dynamo ; The  Automatic  Cut- 
out; How  the  Current  Is  Measured;  How 


xn 

CHAPTER 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 


the  Lamps  Are  Wired  Up;  The  Electric 
Starting  System;  The  Electric  Motor;  The 
Electric  Starter;  How  the  Drive  Is  Made; 
How  the  Drive  Works. 

X.  WHAT  YOU  CAN  FIX  ON  YOUR  CAR 

When  Your  Car  Stops  on  the  Road 
Finding  the  Trouble;  The  Things  You 
Ought  to  Carry;  How  to  Repair  a Tire 
While  You  Wait;  Fixing  the  Radiator; 
Leaks  in  the  Gasoline  Pipe;  When  the  Wa- 
ter Pump  Leaks;  Putting  on  a New  Fan 
Belt;  Fixing  Spark  Plug  Troubles;  To 
Loosen  Screws  and  Nuts;  How  to  Make 
Nuts  Hold  Tight;  When  the  Clutch  Acts 
Up;  What  Not  to  Do. 

When  Your  Car  Is  in  the  Garage 
When  the  Valves  Need  Grinding;  Stretch- 
ing and  Replacing  Valve  Springs;  To 
Remove  Carbon  from  the  Cylinders;  Put- 
ting in  New  Piston  Rings;  How  to  Adjust 
the  Brakes;  How  to  Make  Good  Gaskets; 
Replacing  Broken  Parts. 

XI.  WHEN  YOU  NEED  A MACHINIST 

When  You  Have  a Breakdown  on  the 
Road;  After  Your  Car  Is  in  the  Shop; 
Work  on  the  Front  Axle;  Straightening 
the  Frame;  Repairing  the  Radiator;  Timing 
the  Valves;  Adjusting  the  Connecting  Rod 
Bearings;  Adjusting  the  Crank  Shaft 
Bearings;  Regrinding  and  Reboring  Cylin- 
ders; Rebrazing  Loose  Parts;  Welding 
Broken  Parts;  Putting  New  Leather  on  the 
Clutch;  Fixing  the  Steering  Gear;  Taking 
Care  of  the  Universal  Joints;  About  the 


. 151 


165 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER 

Transmission  Gears;  A Twisted  or  Broken 
Propeller  Shaft;  Testing  the  Differential; 
Relining  the  Brakes;  Overhauling  Your 
Car. 

XII.  HOW  TO  RUN  YOUR  CAR  AT  THE 
LEAST  COST 

On  Extra  Seating  Capacity;  What  Speed 
Economy  Means;  How  Tire  Economy  Is 
Had;  How  to  Be  Good  to  Your  Tires; 
Practicing  Economy  in  the  Water  System; 
How  Fuel  Economy  Is  Obtained;  How  to 
Secure  Ignition  Economy;  How  Oil  Econ- 
omy Is  Worked;  About  Saving  on  Your 
Starting  and  Lighting  System;  How  to 
Practice  Engine  Economy;  Your  Private 
Economy  Service  Inspection;  Table  of  In- 
spection Items;  Your  Company’s  Service 
Inspection;  Keeping  Your  Car  Spick  and 
Span;  Some  Useful  Recipes;  Storing  Your 
Car  for  the  Winter. 


xiii 

PAGB 


. 174 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


FIGUBB  PAGB 

1.  The  Ford  runabout 3 

2.  The  Chalmers  touring  ear 3 

3.  A Pierce-Arrow  limousine  ......  3 

4.  An  F.  R.  P.  brougham 3 

5.  A.  Top  view  of  a ball  gear  shift  lever  ...  17 

B.  A gear  shift  lever  working  in  a speed  selector,  or 

gate 17 

C.  Gear  shifting  table  for  a ball  lever  ...  17 

D.  Speed  selector  gates 18 

6.  A.  Relative  position  of  throttle  and  spark  lever  on 

semicircle 19 

B.  Throttle  and  spark  levers  on  quadrant  ...  19 

C.  Throttle  and  spark  levers  on  the  steering  post  . 19 

7.  A and  B.  The  proper  way  to  crank  a car  . . 20 

8.  A.  Always  press  out  the  clutch  before  shifting  the 

gear  lever 22 

B.  Press  the  accelerator  pedal  with  your  right  foot  . 22 

9.  The  fittings  of  the  driver’s  compartment  of  a Hudson 

Super-Six 23 

10.  A and  B.  How  a car  is  backed  ....  26 

C.  Reversing  direction  of  car  in  a narrow  street  . 26 

11.  A and  B.  The  right  ways  to  pass  a vehicle  . . 29 

C,  D,  and  E.  Turning  into  another  street . _ .29 

12.  Front  axle  and  steering  knuckle  assemble  ...  32 

13.  A.  The  steering  wheel  linked  to  the  steering  assembly  33 

B.  Worm  gear  exposed,  showing  bearings  and  thrust  33 

C.  Screw  and  nut  gear 33 

14.  Front  axle  and  steering  gear  assembly  ...  34 

15.  Rear  axle  assembly 35 

16.  Kinds  of  motor  car  springs  .....  37 


xv 


XVI 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


FIGDBB 

17.  A.  Sketch  of  external  contracting  or  service  brake  . 

B.  Sketch  of  internal  expanding  or  emergency  brake 

C.  Parts  of  the  brake  assembled  . 

18.  Kinds  of  tires  and  rims 

A.  An  inner  tube  with  valve  . . . . . 

B.  The  valve  of  an  inner  tube  . ...  . 

C.  A clincher  casing  ....... 

D.  A straight  bead  casing 

E.  A clincher  rim 

F.  A quick  detachable  gear 

G.  The  demountable  rim 

19.  A.  How  a cone  clutch  works 

B.  Cone  clutch  and  operating  gear  of  an  ordinary  car 

C.  How  a disk  clutch  works 

D.  Disk  clutch  of  a Chalmers  car  . . . . 

E.  How  the  magnetic  clutch  works  . . . . 

F.  How  the  magnetic  clutch  works  on  the  Owen  car 

20.  A.  How  a universal  joint  works  . . . . 

B.  Universal  joint  of  Chevrolet  car  . . . . 

C.  Universal  joint  of  Pierce-Arrow  car  . 

21.  A,  B,  C,  and  D.  Diagrams  showing  how  forward 

and  reverse  transmission  gears  work 
E.  Four-speed  forward  transmission  .... 

22.  A.  Diagram  showing  how  a planetary  transmission 

gear  works 

B.  Planetary  gear  transmission  used  on  the  Ford  ear 

23.  A.  Diagram  showing  how  a friction  transmission 

works  

B.  The  friction  transmission  of  a Metz  car 

24.  A.  Diagram  showing  how  the  differential  gears  work 
B.  Differential  gears  in  their  housing  on  the  rear 

axle  of  a Chalmers  car  ..... 

25.  A car  body  built  up  of  cast  aluminum  plates  and 

backed  by  wood 

26.  Parts  when  assembled  make  a car  .... 

27.  How  a single  cylinder  engine  works  .... 


PAGE 

38 

38 

38 

39 
39 

39 

40 

40 

41 
41 
41 
44 

44 

45 

46 

47 

47 

48 

48 

49 

51 

52 

53 

54 

55 

56 

57 

57 

58 

59 
64 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  xvii 

FIGURE  PAGH 

28.  Diagram  of  a multi-cylinder  engine  showing  how  the 

pistons  are  connected  to  the  crank  shaft  . . 65 

29.  Timing  gears,  cam  shaft  and  valves  of  a Ford  engine  66 

30.  Diagram  of  how  the  cams  work  the  valves  . . 67 

31.  Four  cylinders  cast  en  bloc 68 

32.  A.  Water  jacket  cast  integral  with  cylinders  . . 69 

B.  Piston,  piston  ring  and  wrist  pin  ...  70 

C.  Connecting  rod  and  shim 70 

D.  Four  cylinder  crank  shaft 71 

E.  A four  cylinder  cam  shaft 71 

F.  A poppet  valve 72 

G.  How  the  poppet  valves  are  set  . . . .72 

H.  One  kind  of  a muffler 73 

33.  Cross  section  of  a gasoline  engine  ....  77 

34.  A.  How  the  nozzle  forms  a jet  . . . . 79 

B.  How  a spray  of  gasoline  is  made  ....  79 

C.  Diagram  showing  how  a carburetor  works  . . 80 

35.  A.  The  auxiliary  air  inlet  of  a carburetor  . . 82 

B.  The  carburetor  complete  in  cross  section  . . 82 

C.  How  the  carburetor  is  coupled  to  the  engine  . 83 

36.  A.  Cross  section  view  of  a Stromberg  carburetor  . 84 

B.  A Stromberg  carburetor  complete  ...  84 

37.  Throttle  lever  and  accelerator  controls  of  carburetor  85 

38.  The  pressure  feed  system 87 

39.  The  vacuum  fuel  system 88 

40.  A.  A dry  cell  and  a battery  of  dry  cells  ...  95 

B.  Testing  a dry  battery 95 

41.  A.  A cross  section  of  a storage  battery  ...  96 

B.  Storage  complete 96 

42.  A.  A spark  coil 98 

B.  Wiring  diagram  of  a spark  coil  ....  98 

43.  A.  A spark  plug 99 

B.  How  a spark  plug  is  made 99 

44.  A spark  coil,  spark  plug  and  timer  for  a one-cylin- 

der engine 100 

45.  Four  spark  coils  with  spark  plugs  and  distributor  for 

a four-cylinder  engine 101 


xviii  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

rieuBB 

46.  A low  tension  magneto 

47.  A.  Wiring  diagram  of  a high  tension  magneto  and 

interruptor  for  a one-cylinder  engine 

B.  Wiring  diagram  of  a high  tension  magneto,  in- 

terruptor and  distributor  for  a four-cylinder 
engine 

C.  A high  tension  magneto  showing  interruptor  and 

distributor  disk  and  plate 

48.  A.  The  circuit  breaker  and  distributor  combined 

B.  Wiring  diagram  of  a six-cylinder  circuit  breaker 

spark  coil  system  ...... 

C.  Pictorial  diagram  of  a Remy  six-cylinder  ignition 

system 

49.  The  straight  splash  system 

50.  The  splash  circulating  system 

51.  The  splash  and  force  feed  system  . 

52.  The  force  feed  system 

53.  The  fuel  force  feed  system 

54.  A gear  oil  pump 

55.  A,  B and  C.  Troubles  caused  by  using  poor  oil  or 

wrong  grade  of  oil 

66.  The  lubricating  chart  of  a Hudson  car  . 

67.  A.  Air  cooled  cylinders 

B.  Air  cooled  cylinders 

C.  A Franklin  air  cooled  engine  .... 

58.  A.  Diagram  of  the  thermo-syphon  system 

B.  The  thermo-syphon  system  of  an  Overland  car  . 

59.  A.  Diagram  of  a pump  circulating  system 

B.  The  pump  circulating  system  on  a Buick  car 

60.  Tubular  and  cellular  radiators 

61.  A,  B and  C.  Apparatus  to  test  the  storage  battery 

62.  A,  B and  C.  How  dynamos  are  wound  . 

63.  A,  B and  C.  The  automatic  cut-out 

64.  A.  A double  scale  ammeter 

B.  A fuse  is  an  electric  safety  valve  .... 

65.  Wiring  diagram  of  a lighting  and  starting  system 

complete  (Gray  and  Davis  system) 


PADS 

102 

104 

104 

105 

106 

107 

108 

114 

115 

116 

117 

117 

118 

120 

125 

127 

127 

128 

129 

130 

131 

131 

133 

140 

141 

143 

144 

144 

145 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIGURE 

66.  Wiring  diagram  of  an  electric  starter 

67.  A.  The  electric  starter  complete 

B.  The  motor  drive  of  an  electric  starter  . 

68.  The  kit  of  tools  you  need  . . . . 

69.  Quick  repairs  for  the  road  . 

70.  A couple  of  good  kinks 

71.  A and  B.  How  to  take  out  and  grind  a valve 

72.  A.  Testing  the  seating  of  a valve 

B.  Stretching  a valve  spring  . . . . 

73.  Scraping  out  the  carbon 

74.  A and  B.  Tire  inflation 

75.  Abused  tires  ....... 


xix 

PAGE 

148 

148 

149 

153 

154 

157 

159 

161 

161 

162 

176 

178 


HOW  TO  TAKE  CARE 
OF  AN  AUTOMOBILE 
AT  SMALL  EXPENSE 

CHAPTER  I 

HOW  TO  BUT  A MOTOR  CAR 

I do  not  know  whether  you  are  a Christian  or  a 
scientist  or  both  of  these  x and  y quantities  equated  to 
zero  hut  I am  firm  in  the  belief  that  if  you  want  a thing 
hard  enough  it  will  be  yours  for  the  thinking. 

It’s  a trite  saying  that  “where  there’s  a will  there’s 
a way,”  but  never  before  in  the  course  of  human  events 
has  it  been  so  strikingly  exemplified  as  in  the  case  of  a 
fellow  who  wants  a motor  car  and  of  his  ability  to  find 
the  means  to  get  one. 

The  Dominant  Idea. — So  let’s  suppose  that  you 
have  had  a burning  desire  to  own  a car  and  enjoy  life 
like  your  neighbors  or  to  use  one  in  your  business  like 
your  competitors. 

How  when  this  craving  has  seared  into  your  soul  deep 
enough  it  develops  into  a mental  abnormality  which 
psychologists  call  the  dominant  idea , that  is,  your  every 
waking  thought  will  automatically  influence,  control  and 
direct  your  mental  activities  to  the  end  that  your  wish 
may  be  fulfilled,  and  the  net  result  of  it  all  is  that  you, 
! will  finally  own  a car. 


1 


2 KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


The  whole  process  is  akin  to  faith  cure,  as  the  psy- 
chical treatment  of  diseases  is  called,  but  you  don’t  need 
to  care  a continental  how  it  is  brought  about  as  long  as 
you  get  the  coveted  thing. 

Ways  to  Buy  a Car. — Now  there  are  several 
ways  to  buy  a car — I say  buy  because  it  is  the  only 
scheme  I know  of  to  get  one,  for  it’s  a thing  you  can’t 
borrow — though  you  can  borrow  the  money  with  which 
to  buy  one,  it  is  quite  unlawful  to  steal  one  and  I have 
yet  to  hear  of  the  lady  or  gent  who  accumulated  enough 
green  trading  stamps  to  swap  for  one. 

You  probably  know  as  well  as  I do  that  if  you  have 
any  amount  of  money  from  $345  on  up  with  the  sky  as 
the  limit  you  can  go  out  and  be  separated  from  it  in 
an  hour’s  time  and  bring  the  thing  of  beauty  and  joy 
until  something  goes  wrong  with  it,  home  with  you.  This 
is  the  easy  don’t-give-a-care  way.  But  if  you  haven’t 
the  immediate  wherewithal  two  methods  are  still  open 
for  you  to  buy  a car  just  the  same,  and  these  are  (1) 
to  mortgage  your  bungalow  and  (2)  to  buy  it  on  time 
payments — the  latter  plan  being  the  same  in  principle 
as  that  on  which  Ansonia  clocks  and  Smyrna  rugs  are 
sold  by  peripatetic  agents. 

As  to  mortgaging  the  old  homestead  to  buy  a car, 
well,  that’s  a tremenjous  proposition  which  you  and  the 
wife  will  have  to  decide,  but  when  it  comes  to  the  time 
payment  plan  that  is  an  entirely  different  matter  and 
more  will  be  said  about  it  anon. 

Kinds  of  Cars  to  Buy. — Generically  speaking, 
there  are  two  kinds  of  cars  to  choose  from  and  these  are 
(1)  new  ones  and  (2)  second-hand  ones. 


HOW  TO  BUY  A MOTOR  CAR 


3 


All  other  things  being  equal  it  is  always  the  best  plan 
to  buy  a new  car  if  you  can  afford  it,  but  still  there 
are  times  when  it  is  good  business  to  invest  in  a used 
car,  but  as  the  purchase  of  such  a car  is  a weighty  prob- 
lem it  will  likewise  be  touched  on  a little  later. 


Fig.  1. — The  Ford  Runabout.  The  cheapest  car  made.  Pries 
$345,  2 passenger,  4 cylinder,  20  horsepower. 

Fig.  2. — The  Chalmers  Touring  Car.  A fine  example  of  a low 
priced  car.  Price  $1,050,  5 passenger,  6 cylinder,  30 
horsepower. 

Fig.  3. — A Pierce-Arrow  Limousine.  As  good  a car  as  need  be 
built.  Price  $5,200,  5 passenger,  6 cylinder,  38  horse- 
power. 

Fig.  4. — An  F.  R.  P.1  Brougham.  A car  fit  for  a king  and  his 
queen.  Price  $9,000,  5 passenger,  6 cylinder,  52 
horsepower. 

Oil  Buying1  a New  Car.— In  the  very  beginning 
this  much  is  certain — you  can’t  go  wrong  if  you  buy  a 
new  car. 

Never  before  in  the  history  of  the  automobile  industry 
have  manufacturers  so  felt  the  need  of  putting  the  very 
best  materials  and  workmanship  into  their  cars,  because 

1 Finley  Robertson  Porter. 


4 KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


of  all  the  varied  products  used  by  the  intelligent  public 
today  the  motor  car  is  the  most  widely  discussed. 

A man  may  buy  a turkey  that  he  can’t  masticate,  or 
a suit  of  clothes  that  shrinks  in  the  rain,  or,  in  the  polite 
vernacular  of  automobile  row,  he  may  get  stung  in  any 
one  of  a hundred  ways  and  soon  forget  all  about  it,  but 
just  let  the  smallest  accident  happen  to  his  car  and 
he  will  tell  everybody  he  meets  about  it  for  the  rest  of 
his  natural  life. 

This  untoward  knocking  has  been  a large  factor  in 
stimulating  manufacturers  to  make  good  cars,  and  the 
result  is  that  the  cars  of  all  the  makers  can  be  depended 
upon  about  in  proportion  to  the  price  you  pay. 

Next  to  buying  a car  of  an  old,  true  and  tried  maker, 
put  as  much  money  into  it  as  you  are  able,  for  almost 
without  exception  the  more  a car  costs  the  greater  satis- 
faction it  will  give  you,  not  only  in  its  wearing  qualities 
but  in  its  riding  properties,  to  say  nothing  of  its  higher- 
toned  appearance. 

Buying  a Cheap  Car. — Should  your  bank  roll 
range  from  $345  to  $600  you  will  have  a choice  of  two 
or  more  styles  and  of  at  least  nine  makes  of  cars.  The 
following  table  gives  the  make  of  car,  the  price  of  it  and 
the  place  where  the  factory  is  located : 


Table  of  Cars  Costing  Less  Than  $600. 


Name  of  Car. 
Ford  Model  I 

Emerson 

Chevrolet 


Price. 

Runabout  $345. 
Touring  360. 

395. 

490. 


Where  Made. 
Detroit,  Mich. 

Kingston,  N.  Y. 
Detroit,  Mich. 


HOW  TO  BUY  A MOTOR  CAR 


5 


Name  of  Car.  Price. 

Saxon  B 5 R Roadster  $495. 


Price.  Where  Made. 


i.  Detroit,  Mich. 


Metz  25 


545.  Waltham,  Mass. 
550.  Minneapolis,  Minn, 


Moore  H G M 
Monroe  M-3 
Harronn 


565.  Pontiac,  Mich. 
595.  Detroit,  Mich. 
595.  Detroit,  Mich. 


Maxwell  25-4 


Before  you  buy  one  of  these  low-priced  cars  it  is  an 
excellent  plan  to  get  the  literature  on  all  of  them.  If 
you  live  in  a city  or  even  a town  you  will  quite  likely 
find  a dealer,  or  at  least  an  agent,  who  will  supply  you, 
and  if  you  live  in  the  country  send  to  the  manufacturers 
direct  for  it. 

My  idea  of  buying  a low-priced  car  is  that  one  is 
about  as  good  as  another  and  so  the  only  features  that 
are  worth  considering  are  (1)  the  price  you  want  to  pay 
and  (2)  the  car  you  like  the  best. 

Any  of  the  above  cars  should  give  you  good  service 
for  two  years,  or  even  longer,  and  you  can  then  trade 
it  in  and  get  a new  car  of  the  same  make,  or  sell  it  and 
try  a car  of  some  other  make.  In  my  opinion  it  is  a 
great  mistake  to  trade  in  a car  at  the  end  of  the  first 
year  for  it  should  then  be  in  the  very  pink  of  condition. 

Since  misery  loves  company  it  ought  to  cheer  you  up 
a bit  to  know  that  many  of  these  cars  are  made  of  bet- 
ter materials  than  a lot  of  the  medium-priced  cars  that 
were  put  on  the  market  in  1910,  and  which  have  since 
gained  in  reputation  and  increased  in  price.  Buy  any 
of  the  above  cars  and  you  will  in  all  events  get  your 
money’s  worth. 

Buying  a Medium-Priced  Oar. — If  you  can 


6 KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


spend  from  $600  to  $1200  for  a car  you  will  have  over 
60  different  makes  to  choose  from,  and  these  include 
more  than  a dozen  well-known  names. 

These  better  kinds  of  cars  should  stand  up  well  for 
four  or  five  years  and  by  that  time  you  will  either  not 
need  a machine  or  you  will  want  a new  one,  especially 
if  you  are  a stickler  for  style — though  the  design  is  not 
as  apt  to  change  either  as  fast  or  as  radically  in  the  next 
few  years  as  it  has  in  the  past,  but  of  course  improve- 
ments will  always  be  in  order. 

To  read  what  each  advertising  man  has  to  say  about 
all  of  the  good  points  of  his  company’s  car  and  all  of 
the  reasons  why  you  ought  to  buy  it  would  take  half  a 
lifetime,  hence  the  best  way  is  to  pick  out  a car  at  your 
price,  choose  a style  that  you  like,  a type  of  body  that 
meets  your  needs,  a make  that  you  know  to  be  good,  and 
see  to  it  that  the  upholstery  is  twilled  and  not  tufted 
and  you  won’t  go  wrong. 

Buying  a High-Priced  Car. — Doubtless  you  will 
say  that  a $1200  car  is  far  from  being  high-priced,  but, 
on  the  other  hand,  you  will  agree  that  a $9000  car  is 
some  expensive.  One  good  thing  about  buying  a high- 
priced  car  is  that  you  can  have  your  choice  of  75  dif- 
ferent makes  between  these  two  extremes. 

When  you  buy  a car  costing  between  $1500  co  $2000 
you  will  have  one  that  would  do  a King  proud,  but 
there  are  others.  From  $2500  on  up  you  can  have 
your  pick  of  cars  that  include  such  famous  makes  as  the 
Stutz,  Lozier,  Packard,  Marmon,  Winton,  Pierce- 
Arrow,  Locomobile,  Simplex  and  the  F.  R.  P. 

These  and  other  high-priced  cars  are  built  of  the  fin- 


HOW  TO  BUY  A MOTOR  CAR 


7 


est  selected  and  most  carefully  tested  materials  and 
they  are  the  last  word  in  all  that  goes  to  make  np  per- 
fectly appointed  cars. 

What’s  What  in  Car  Bodies. — As  an  aid  in 
helping  you  to  select  the  right  kind  of  a body  the  fol- 
lowing table,  which  gives  the  different  types  of  car 
bodies  as  officially  defined  by  the  Society  of  Automobile 
Engineers,  is  appended : 

Roadster. — An  open  car  seating  two  or  three.  It 
may  have  additional  seats  on  running  boards  or  in  rear 
deck. 

Coupelet. — Seats  two  or  three.  It  has  a folding  top 
and  full  height  doors  with  disappearing  panels  of  glass. 

Coupe. — An  inside  operated,  enclosed  car  seating  two 
or  three.  A fourth  seat  facing  backward  is  sometimes 
added. 

Convertible  Coupe. — A roadster  provided  with  a de- 
tachable coupe  top. 

Clover  Leaf. — An  open  car  seating  three  or  four. 
The  rear  seat  is  close  to  the  divided  front  seat  and 
entrance  is  only  through  doors  in  front  of  the  front 
seat. 

Touring  Car. — An  open  car  seating  four  or  more 
with  direct  entrance  to  tonneau. 

Salon  Touring  Car. — A touring  car  with  passage  be- 
tween front  seats,  with  or  without  separate  entrance 
to  front  seats. 

Convertible  Touring  Car. — A touring  car  with  fold- 
ing and  disappearing  or  removable  glass  sides. 

Sedan. — A closed  car  seating  four  or  more  all  in  one 
compartment. 


8 KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


Convertible  Sedan. — A salon  touring  car  provided 
with  a detachable  sedan  top. 

Open  Sedan. — A sedan  so  constructed  that  the  sides 
can  be  removed  or  stowed  so  as  to  leave  the  space  en- 
tirely clear  from  the  glass  front  to  the  back. 

Limousine. — A closed  car  seating  three  to  five  inside, 
with  driver’s  seat  outside,  covered  with  a roof. 

Open  Limousine. — A touring  car  with  permanent 
standing  top  and  disappearing  or  removable  glass 
sides. 

Berline. — A limousine  having  the  driver’s  seat  en- 
tirely inclosed. 

Brougham. — A limousine  with  no  roof  over  the  driv- 
er’s seat. 

Landaulet. — A closed  car  with  folding  top,  seats  for 
three  or  more  inside  and  driver’s  seat  outside. 

Buying  a Car  on  Time  Payments. — Nearly  all 
dealers  will  sell  you  a car  on  what  is  called  the  deferred 
payment  plan,  that  is,  you  pay  25  to  50  per  cent  down 
and  the  balance  in  eight  or  twelve  equal  monthly  pay- 
ments, and  you  give  your  notes,  promissory  or  secured, 
at  6 per  cent  interest,  for  the  balance. 

Now  the  right  way  for  you  to  buy  a car  at  the  present 
time  is  on  the  deferred  or  time  payment  plan,  and  this 
applies  to  you,  gentle  reader,  whether  you  are  a $20 
a week  grocery  clerk  or  a millionaire,  as  you  will  plainly 
see  if  you  will  but  read  a little  farther. 

The  Opulent  Man’s  Way. — And  why,  you  may 
wonder,  should  you  with  a barrel  of  cash  on  hand  or  in 
the  banks,  or  better,  its  equivalent  in  stocks,  bonds 
and  other  securities,  buy  a car  on  the  deferred  payment 


HOW  TO  BUY  A MOTOR  CAR 


9 


plan  and  pay  interest  instead  of  paying  cash  and,  per- 
chance, get  a rebate. 

But  there’s  a reason  and  I hold  it’s  a mighty  good 
one.  When  you  buy  a car  of  a dealer  for  cash  the  mo- 
ment he  has  your  money  and  you  have  his  car  he  loses 
interest  in  both  you  and  the  car.  Should  anything  go 
wrong  and  you  ask  him  to  make  it  good,  he  will  to 
all  outward  appearances  he  interested,  but  at  heart  it  is 
a very  negative  interest  and  the  result  is  that  you  are 
more  than  apt  to  get  poor  service  and  little  or  no  satis- 
faction. 

ISTow  you  may  say  it  isn’t  fair  and  it  isn’t  business 
for  a man  to  act  that  way  and  while  your  premises  in 
both  cases  are  true  still  it  is  simply  unadulterated 
human  nature,  and  you  can’t  change  it,  no,  not  even  if 
you  cut  away  that  part  of  his  thick  ivory  which  presses 
against  the  convolution  of  his  gray  matter  wherein  re- 
sides his  Christian  training. 

But  what  you  can  do  is  to  circumvent  it  by  taking 
the  proper  precautionary  measures  when  you  buy  the 
car.  That  is  to  say,  make  the  first  payment  the  dealer 
requires  and  then  give  him  your  notes  for  the  balance, 
making  the  first  one  payable  three  months  from  the 
date  of  purchase  if  possible. 

Every  maker  and  every  dealer  will  tell  you  to  run 
the  car  very  gently  at  first  because  it  is  new,  and  that 
you  must  do  so  until  the  engine  and  other  moving  parts 
are  tuned  up.  My  idea  is  a little  different  in  that  when 
you  get  the  car  you  ought  to  drive  it  at  least  1000  miles 
a month,  and  by  the  time  you  have  run  it  for  the  three 
months  if  there  is  any  inherent  defect  it  will  be  bound 


10  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


to  show  up.  Whatever  happens  to  it  see  the  dealer  and 
you  will  find  that  he  will  take  just  as  keen  an  interest 
in  it  as  you  do  for  he  knows  that  unless  he  makes  good 
and  satisfies  you  that  you  will  default  in  your  payments 
for  cause,  and  that  he  will  have  a second-hand  car  on 
his  hands. 

Having  thus  run  up  the  mileage  to  or  more  than 
the  limit  cited  and  tested  it  out  when  the  three  months 
roll  around  and  your  first  note  is  due,  if  the  car  is  satis- 
factory, take  up  all  your  notes  and  you  will  have  paid 
the  same  price  as  if  you  had  laid  down  the  full  amount 
in  the  first  place,  plus  a very  small  premium,  and  you 
will  know  that  your  car  is  a good  one. 

The  Salaried  Man’s  Way. — And  what  has  just 
been  said  above  applies  equally  as  well  to  the  salaried 
man  who  buys  a car.  Not  only  this,  but  the  deferred 
payment  plan  has  made  it  possible  for  hundreds  of 
thousands  of  men  and  women  in  moderate  circum- 
stances to  buy  cars  who  could  never  have  afforded  them 
otherwise,  just  as  the  same  plan  has  enabled  these  same 
thrifty,  happy  and  independent  folks  to  buy  homes  and 
to  furnish  them. 

The  idea  that  it  is  poor  policy  for  a person  to  huv 
that  which  he  hasn’t  the  spot  cash  to  pay  for  has,  like 
Aristotle’s  teachings  that  interest  is  sinful — long  since 
been  knocked  in  the  head;  so  too  the  idea  that  it  is 
wicked  for  anyone  who  has  to  depend  on  his  daily  toil 
for  his  bread  to  own  a car  is  fallacious  in  every  sense 
of  the  word. 

But  what  everybody  has  always  admitted  is  perfectly 
all  right  and  proper,  though,  is  the  pursuit  of  happi- 


HOW  TO  BUY  A MOTOR  CAR 


11 


ness*;  this  being  true,  let  me  say  that  there  is  no  vehicle 
besides  the  motor  car  and  the  aeroplane  with  which  one 
can  so  successfully  pursue  happiness ; aye,  what  is  more, 
it  is  one  of  the  few  ways  in  which  one  can  actually  catch 
up  with  it  (unless  something  happens). 

I don’t  need  to  tell  you  what  a delight  it  is  to  spin 
smoothly  and  swiftly  over  long  stretches  of  the  country- 
side with  those  you  love  and  who  love  you,  stop  at  some 
quiet  dell  or  by  some  babbling  brook  to  eat  your  lunch 
and  then  roll  up  a comfortable  mileage  to  get  back  home 
again.  I tell  you  to  do  these  things  and  to  know  nature 
is  the  finest  kind  of  religion,  and  the  motor  car  is  a 
creed  that  has  as  many  adherents,  at  least  in  spirit,  as 
all  the  other  formal  religious  beliefs  put  together.  Go 
thou  then  and  likewise  hit  the  macadamized  trail. 

Buying  a Second-Hand  Car. — The  market  is 
glutted  with  used  cars  of  every  kind  and  vintage,  and 
you  can  buy  some  of  these  at  prices  as  small  as  the  tires 
of  a good  car  are  worth,  and  then  on  up  to  figures  that 
are  unconscionably  high  for  the  junk  you  get. 

Then  there  are  all  manner  of  people  who  have  second- 
hand cars  to  sell  from  the  individual  owner  who  is  leav- 
ing the  city  for  a goal  somewhere  in  France  or  a pole 
somewhere  in  the  Arctics,  to  the  regular  used  car  dealer, 
and  from  the  automobile  broker  to  the  high-grade  com- 
panies who  have  what  they  are  pleased  to  call  rebuilt 
cars. 

Now  when  you  buy  a second-hand  car  you  are  taking 
a . far  longer  chance  than  you  did  when  you  bought  the 
prehistoric  quadruped  of  the  genus  equus  in  the  long 
ago  age  that  antedated  Selden’s  first  self-moving  wagon 


12  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


in  1878,  and  for  a considerable  time  thereafter.  In 
those  days  you  could  at  least  look  at  her  teeth  and  feel 
out  her  good  and  bad  points.  But  not  so  with  an  auto- 
mobile, for  while  it  may  look  well  and  run  better  on 
a demonstration  there  may  be  grave  faults  in  it  that 
neither  you  nor  it  will  ever  get  over. 

Nor  does  it  do  any  good  to  have  a machinist  look 
over  a car  for  the  defects  are  usually  hidden  from  view 
and  the  only  way  to  know  its  precise  condition  is  to 
tear  it  down,  examine  every  part  and  then  reassemble 
it ; this  of  course  is  not  practicable  once  in  a thousand 
times,  even  if  you  were  willing  to  pay  for  having  it 
done. 

Be  mighty  careful,  therefore,  in  buying  a second- 
hand car  of  anyone  for  you  do  so  at  your  own  risk, 
or  caveat  emptor  as  the  bill  of  sale  will  read,  which 
means  in  cold-blooded  American  let  the  buyer  beware , 
and  that  you  buy  it  as  is. 

Talk  about  injecting  the  hypo  into  an  antediluvian 
selling  plater  to  make  her  prick  up  her  ears,  take  the 
kinks  out  of  her  knees  and  do  a mile  in  something  less 
than  three  minutes — why,  it’s  mere  child's  play  as 
against  the  way  a professional  dealer  doctors  up  a tin 
lizard  and  handles  the  sale  of  it. 

My  advice  is  never  to  buy  a second-hand  car  unless 
you  are  willing  to  spend  an  additional  $50  or  $100 
on  it  to  have  it  overhauled  after  it  is  yours  for  keeps. 

With  high-grade  cars  like  the  Packard,  Pierce- Arrow, 
Winton,  etc.,  you  take  a smaller  chance  because  they 
are  made  of  the  best  possible  materials  to  begin  with 
and  if  you  are  looking  for  service  rather  than  style 


HOW  TO  BUY  A MOTOR  CAR 


13 


any  of  these  good  cars  that  are  less  than  five  years  old 
and  can  be  bought  for  less  than  $500  is  what  I should 
call  a bargain. 

To  buy  a rebuilt  car  of  some  big  and  well  known  com- 
pany is  in  my  opinion  entirely  safe — probably  because 
I have  never  had  the  actual  experience  of  buying  one  in 
that  particular  manner — but  in  any  case  you  will  pay 
all  that  the  car  is  worth. 

Still  sticking  to  my  original  premise  if  you  will  buy 
a new  and  tested  make  of  car  costing  from  $1000  to 
$2500  on  the  deferred  payment  plan  you  can’t  lose 
out. 


CHAPTER  II 


LEARNING  TO  DRIVE  YOUR  CAR 

I am  taking  it  for  granted  that  you  have  never  driven 
a car  before  but  I am  also  assuming  that  you  have  al- 
ready bought  a car  and  that  the  aforesaid  car  is  a brand- 
new  one. 

Lessons  from  a Demonstrator. — This  being  the 
case,  you  are  ready  to  take  your  first  lesson  from  a 
demonstrator ; that  is,  a man  employed  by  the  company 
to  instruct  a buyer  how  to  run  his  car.  You  and  he  get 
into  your  car — they  never  teach  you  in  a car  that  be- 
longs to  the  company — and  naturally  he  takes  the  wheel 
and  you’re  off. 

He  drives  you  to  some  wide  and  quiet  street  where 
you  will  receive  your  first  lesson.  If  you  are  a wise 
gazabo  you  will  cross  the  palm  of  his  hand  right  away 
with  a $5  bill,  for  then  he  will  take  great  pains  to  tell 
and  show  you  about  your  car ; his  patience  and  ability 
as  a tutor  will  be  increased  in  the  ratio  of  about  0 to  5, 
i.  e.,  to  infinity. 

How  while  the  demonstrator  is  fully  competent  to 
teach  you  to  drive  the  car  at  the  same  time  if  you  know 
a little  about  it  in  advance  he  will  be  able  to  teach  you 
in  half  the  time  and  it  follows  you  will  be  able  to  drive 
your  car  just  twice  as  quickly.  Hence  it  behooves  you 
to  read  this  book  very  carefully. 

14 


LEARNING  TO  DRIVE  YOUR  CAR  15 


The  Lessons. — In  your  first  lesson  tlie  demonstrator 
simply  shows  you  how  to  work  the  clutch,  brake  and 
accelerator  pedals  and  use  the  throttle,  spark  and  gear 
shifting  levers. 

The  next  lesson  he  lets  you  take  the  steering  wheel 
and  you  throw  the  clutch  in  and  out,  shift  the  transmis- 
sion gears,  accelerate  the  engine — that  is,  you  give  it 
more  gas — and  learn  to  brake  the  car  by  means  of  the 
service  and  emergency  brake  levers. 

In  the  third  lesson,  if  you  are  an  apt  pupil,  he  teaches 
you  how  to  turn  around  and  to  back  up,  and  finally  he 
goes  over  the  car  and  shows  you  where  all  the  grease- 
cups  are,  how  to  oil  the  engine,  all  about  the  starting, 
ignition  and  lighting  systems  and  then  he  drives  you  to 
your  garage  and  leaves  the  high-powered  machine  for 
you  to  get  acquainted  with. 

Running  the  Car  Yourself. — When  you  are  alone 
together,  so  to  speak,  with  your  car,  the  best  way  is  to 
get  into  it  while  the  engine  is  dead,  that  is  not  running, 
and  practice  throwing  the  clutch  in  and  out  and  work- 
ing the  brake  and  accelerator  pedals;  the  main  thing 
is  to  learn  to  push  the  clutch  out  every  time  before  you 
throw  the  gear  shift  lever,  for  if  you  forget  to  do  so 
you  will  strip  the  gears,  which  means  that  a few  teeth 
will  be  broken  off  them. 

If  you  will  read  the  following  chapters  painstakingly 
you  will  know  exactly  how  the  clutch  and  transmission 
gears  are  made  and  how  they  work,  as  well  as  the 
carburetor  which  regulates  the  supply  of  gasoline  and 
air  that  forms  the  explosive  mixture,  or  fuel  mixture 
as  it  is  called,  for  the  engine,  and  the  ignition 


16  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


system,  which  makes  the  electric  sparks  for  explod- 
ing it. 

Knowing  the  action  and  operation  of  these  de- 
rices  it  will  be  easy  for  you  to  understand  why  and 
how  the  pedals  and  levers  control  them,  and  hence 
it  will  he  almost  second  nature  for  you  to  manipulate 
them. 

Now  for  Some  Road  Work. — What  to  Do  First. 
— Having  practiced  with  the  pedals  and  levers  until  you 
are  perfectly  familiar  with  them  you  are  ready  for 
your  'premier  as  a driver. 

Before  you  start  be  sure  to  (1)  fill  the  radiator  with 
clean  water;  (2)  fill  the  gasoline  tank  with  a good  grade 
of  gasoline;  (3)  put  lubricating  oil  in  the  engine;  (4) 
turn  all  the  grease  cups  once  around,  and,  finally, 
(5)  turn  on  the  gasoline — every  car  has  a pet  cock 
for  this  purpose.  If  the  gasoline  system  is  of  the 
pressure  feed  type  be  sure  there  is  enough  pressure 
in  the  tank. 

Just  Before  You  Start. — The  next  few  things  to 
do  are  (1)  to  put  in  the  ignition  switch;  (2)  throw  the 
gear  shifting  lever  to  the  neutral  position  as  shown  in 
Fig.  5 — that  is,  so  that  none  of  the  transmission  gears 
mesh;  (3)  set  up  the  throttle  lever — this  is  usually  the 
longest  and  the  upper  lever  on  the  brass  quadrant,  or 
semi-circle,  fixed  to  the  steering  post — to  about  45  de- 
grees. The  distance  varies  according  to  the  make  of 
the  car.  The  demonstrator  will  show  you  the  exact 
point  to  set  it  from  the  base  of  the  quadrant  as  shown 
in  Fig.  6 ; (4)  advance  the  spark  lever — this  is  usually 
the  shortest  and  lower  lever  on  the  quadrant — that  is, 


Fig.  5. — A.  Top  view  of  a ball  gear  shift  lever.  B.  A gear  shift 
lever  working  in  a speed  selector,  or  gate. 


LOW  TO  SECOND 

SECOND  TO  HIGH 


HIGH  TO  NEUTRAL  NEUTRAL  TO 

REVERSE 


Fig.  5. — C.  Gear  shifting  table  for  a ball  lever. 

17 


18  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


move  it  about  90  degrees 1 from  the  base  of  the 
quadrant,  or  semi-circle,  and  (5)  flood  the  carburetor , 
either  bj  pulling  out  on  the  priming  rod , which  in  the 
cheaper  cars  projects  through  the  radiator,  or  by  press- 


FOR  THREE 
SPEEDS  FORWARD 


FOR  FOUR 
SPEEDS  FORWARD 


Fig.  5. — D.  Speed  selector  gates. 


ing  the  priming  button  on  the  dash  in  the  better  car; 
(6)  close  the  switch. 

Next  Start  the  Engine. — Now  start  the  engine 
either  by  cranking  it  by  hand  or  by  using  the  self- 
starter, according  to  the  kind  of  car  you  own. 

1 Hera  again  the  distance  varies  according  to  the  make  of  the 
oar. 


'OSmON  OF  THROTTLE  AND 
SPARK  LEVER  FOR  FAST  RUNNING 
POTTLE  LEVER 
POSITION  OF  SPARK  LEVER 
FOR  BEST  RUNNING  AT 
FI  EDI  UN  SPEED  THRO  TTLE 

'POS!  T/ON  OF  THROTTLE  EE  VER 

LEVER  FOR NED/Un  

PEED  C 

POSITION  OF  THROTTLE 
■x-EEVER  FOR  STARTING 
-AND  SLOW  RUNNING 
SPARK  LEVER  RUNNING 
POSITION  OF  SPARK 
EE  VER  FOR  STARTING 


QUADRANT 


SPARK  LEVER 


Fig.  6. — A.  Eelative  position  of  throttle  and  spark  lever  on  semi- 
circle. B.  Throttle  and  spark  levers  on  quadrant. 


Fig.  6. — C.  The  throttle  and  spark  levers  on  the  steering  post. 


19 


20  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


(1)  Where  a self-starter  is  used  all  you  need  to  do 
is  to  push  down  on  the  starting  switch  with  your  foot 
and  it  will  do  the  rest. 

(2)  If  your  car  is  one  that  you  have  to  crank  by 
hand,  grasp  the  handle  of  the  crank  with  your  right 
hand  and  keep  your  thumb  and  fingers  on  the  same  side 
and  in  the  same  way  as  shown  at  A in  Fig.  7,  and  stand 


with  your  left  side  toward  the  car  as  shown  at  B ; 
turn  the  handle  clockwise  and  push  in  on  it  until  it 
meshes , that  is,  catches  in  the  crank  shaft  of  the  engine, 
and  then  give  it  a quick  half-turn  up  from  its  lowest 
to  its  highest  position,  when  the  engine  ought  to  start. 

Should  the  repeated  half-turns  of  the  crank  fail  to 
start  the  engine  give  the  handle  a complete  turn  but 
in  so  doing  be  very  careful  on  the  down  stroke  because 
the  handle  may  be  kicked  the  other  way  by  the  back 
fire  of  the  engine  and  you  may  get  your  arm  hurt. 


LEARNING  TO  DRIVE  YOUR  CAR  21 


If  a magneto  is  used  instead  of  a battery  ignition 
system  you  can  turn  the  crank  around  several  times 
without  stopping,  or  spin  it  as  it  is  called,  without  dan- 
ger, provided  the  spark  lever  is  not  advanced  too  far. 

When  the  Engine  Is  Running. — After  the  en- 
gine starts  (1)  move  the  throttle  lever  down  a little — 
see  A in  Fig.  6 — when  the  engine  will  run  slowly; 
(2)  move  up  the  spark  lever  to  give  the  engine  more 
power  and  (3)  if  there  is  a lever  or  a button  on  the 
dash  for  the  carburetor  adjust  it  until  the  engine  runs 
smoothly. 

You  Are  Ready  to  Go. — When  the  engine  is  run- 
ning smoothly  then  (1)  release  the  hand  or  emergency 
brake  and  at  the  same  time  hold  the  car  with  the  foot 
or  service  brake  as  shown  in  Fig.  8,  and  don’t  forget 
to  do  it  either. 

(2)  Grasp  the  steering  wheel  on  each  side;  (3)  press 
out  the  clutch  by  pushing  in  on  the  clutch  pedal  with 
your  foot — this  disconnects  the  engine  from  the  driv- 
ing shaft;  (4)  throw  the  gear  shift  lever  from  neutral 
to  the  first  speed  position  as  shown  in  Fig.  5,  and  (5) 
release  the  service  brake  with  your  right  foot. 

(6)  Now  with  the  same  foot  press  the  accelerator 
pedal,  see  Fig.  8 again,  which  is  connected  with  the 
throttle  lever,  until  the  engine  picks  up  in  speed;  (7) 
let  your  foot  up  gradually  on  the  clutch  pedal  when  the 
clutch  will  begin  to  take  hold  and  you  will  find  your 
car  slowly  running  along  the  road. 

How  to  Shift  the  Gears. — When  the  car  has 
gained  a little  headway  and  you  want  to  go  faster 
(1)  press  the  accelerator  pedal  to  give  the  engine  more 


22  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


gasoline,  and  hence  more  momentum ; then  (2)  push  out 
the  clutch;  (3)  throw  the  gear  shift  lever  over  to  second 
place,  or  speed  as  it  is  called,  as  shown  in  Fig.  5,  and 
this  will  carry  you  along  faster  but  with  less  power. 

Always  be  sure  to  press  out  the  clutch  before  you 
shift  the  gears  or  you  will  strip  off  the  teeth.  When 
you  shift  the  gears  to  the  next  higher  speed  don’t  do 


Fig.  8. — A.  Always  press  out  the  clutch  before  shifting  the  gear 
lever.  B.  Press  the  accelerator  pedal  with  your  right  foot. 


it  too  quickly;  neither  do  you  want  to  wait  until  the 
car  has  slowed  down  after  you  have  pressed  out  the 
clutch. 

After  a very  little  running  you  will  know  intuitively 
when  the  speed  is  reached  where  you  ought  to  change 
to  the  next  higher  gear.  The  load  you  carry  and  the 
kind  of  a road  you  are  on  taken  together  determine  the 
speed  gears  you  should  use  and  the  time  to  change 
them. 

On  Direct  or  High  Gear. — When  you  have 
^hanged  from  second  to  direct,  or  high  speed  gear  you 
can  run  nearly  as  slowly  as  you  did  on  low  gear — that 


LEARNING  TO  DRIVE  YOUR  CAR  23 


is,  if  you  want  to;  or  you  can  run  as  fast  or  a little 
faster  than  the  law  allows;  in  fact,  you  can  get  any 
speed  you  want  by  simply  pressing  on  the  accelerator 
pedal  more  or  less,  which  feeds  the  fuel  mixture  into 
the  engine. 

In  learning,  drive  your  car  quite  slowly  when  it  is  on 


y/tcuuN  pump- 
spark  CONTROL 

HORN  SUTTON 
THROTTLE 
CONTROL 
LEVER 


GASOLINE  FEED 
REGULATOR  LEVER 


OIL  GUAGE 

SH  LAMP 
SPEEDOMETER 


TAIL  AND  DASH 
LAMP 

IGNITION 
SUTTON 
CLUTCH  PEDAL 

ACCELERATOR 
PEDAL 

FOOT  BRAHE  PEDAL 
CHANGE  GEAR  LEVER 

TO  BE  TTT  CENTQffL  POSITION  TTTZVC.K-JC. 

TVMCN  STARTING-  nOTOR  FIRST  SPEED 


AMMETER 

COMBINATION 
SNITCH 
EMERGENCY 
DRAKE  LEVER 

STARTER 
PEDAL 

UTCH  SHIFTING 
SLEEVE  GREASE  CUP 


Fig.  9. — The  fittings  of  the  driver’s  compartment  of  a Hudson 
Super-Six. 


high  gear  and  you  can  do  this  by  throttling  down  the 
engine  with  the  throttle  lever  to  the  speed  you  want; 
but  be  careful  not  to  throttle  it  down  to  the  point  where 
the  engine  labors  or  stalls  altogether. 

To  Slow  Down  and  Stop  the  Car. — (1)  When 
you  are  running  along  and  want  to  slow  down  lift  your 
foot  from  the  accelerator  pedal  and  press  down  on  the 
brake  pedal,  when  not  only  the  brake  but  the  engine 


24<  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


will  retard  the  car.  When  the  speed  of  the  car  falls 
to  less  than  10  miles  per  hour  press  out  the  clutch. 

(2)  To  stop  the  car  press  on  the  clutch  pedal  and  the 
brake  pedal  at  the  same  time,  and  (3)  if  you  are  in 
danger  of  running  into  something  pull  the  hand  emer- 
gency brake  back  also  at  the  same  time  with  all  your 
might.  But  this  procedure  is  mighty  hard  on  the  tires, 
so  avoid  it  if  possible.  See  Fig.  9 and  also  A Fig.  75. 

(4)  When  you  stop  the  car  always  see  to  it  that 
the  gear  shift  lever  is  set  in  the  neutral  position.  (See 
Fig.  5.) 

How  to  Stop  the  Engine. — All  you  have  to  do  to 
stop  the  engine  is  to  (1)  pull  the  throttle  lever  clear 
down  to  the  base  of  the  quadrant,  and  (2)  turn  the 
ignition  switch  key  off. 

A better  way  to  stop  the  engine  is  to  (1)  pull  the 
throttle  lever  about  half  way  down — in  order  to  fill  the 
cylinders  with  a rich  charge — and  then  (2)  turn  off 
the  ignition  switch ; this  will  enable  you  to  re-start  your 
engine  very  easily  on  compression  as  it  is  called. 

Learning  to  Take  a Curve. — Knowing  now  how  to 
start,  run  and  stop  a car  your  next  move  is  to  learn  to 
take  a curve,  that  is,  how  to  turn  a comer. 

Since  you  turn  the  steering  wheel  in  the  direction 
you  want  to  go  1 and  as  you  turn  it  in  proportion  to  the 
curve  you  want  to  take,  it  comes  just  as  easy  and  nat- 
ural as  pulling  on  the  right  or  left  line  of  a dinosaurus 
and  saying  gee  or  haw,  and  it’s  not  nearly  as  nerve 
racking  either  because  you  don’t  have  to  swear  at  the 

1 This  means  that  the  top  of  the  wheel  is  turned  in  the  direction 
you  want  to  go. 


LEARNING  TO  DRIVE  YOUR  CAR  25 


beastie  at  the  same  time.  Practice  turning  left-hand 
corners  as  well  as  right-hand  ones. 

Always  slow  down  when  you  turn  a corner  for  it  is 
not  only  dangerous  to  take  a curve  at  high  speed  but  it 
is  very  hard  on  the  tires  as  well. 

About  Backing  Your  Car. — Practically  all  cars 
that  are  built  at  the  present  time  have  only  one  speed 
on  which  they  can  be  reversed. 

To  back  the  car  (1)  push  out  the  clutch ; (2)  throw 
the  gear  shift  lever  over  to  the  reverse  position  as  shown 
in  Fig.  5;  (3)  accelerate  the  engine  a little  by  pushing 
down  on  the  accelerator  pedal  and  (4)  let  the  clutch  in 
gradually. 

If  you  want  to  back  straight  away  of  course  you  must 
keep  the  front  wheels  straight,  that  is,  in  alignment 
with  the  rear  wheels.  To  back  the  car  either  to  the 
right  or  left  turn  the  steering  wheel  exactly  as  you 
would  to  turn  it  to  the  right  or  left  when  going  ahead, 
as  the  diagrams  A and  B in  Fig.  10  show. 

To  turn  your  car  around  in  a narrow  street  in  order 
to  reverse  your  direction  drive  up  close  to  the  right- 
hand  curb  as  shown  at  C,  make  a short  turn  and  run  up 
close  to  the  opposite  curb  and  at  right  angles  to  it; 
now  throw  the  gear  shift  lever  into  the  reverse  position 
and  then  back  the  car  until  it  is  headed  in  the  direction 
you  want  to  go  and  far  enough  away  from  the  curb  to 
easily  clear  it  when  you  go  ahead  again. 

When  Going  Up  a Hill.  — A gasoline  engine  is 
different  from  a steam  engine  in  that  it  develops  power 
only  when  it  is  running  at  a fairly  high  speed.  Again 
the  faster  a car  runs  the  more  momentum  it  gathers,  that 


26  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


is,  the  farther  it  will  run  after  the  power  is  shut  off. 

Bearing  these  two  facts  in  mind  when  you  are  about 
to  negotiate  a hill,  however  long,  or  steep,  or  both,  it 


Fig.  10. — A and  B.  How  a car  is  backed. 


C.  Reversing  direction  of  ear  in  a narrow  street. 


may  he,  give  your  car  a good  running  start.  When  the 
force  of  the  momentum  has  spent  itself,  and  the  moment 
the  engine  begins  to  lose  power,  shift  the  gear  lever 


LEARNING  TO  DRIVE  YOUR  CAR  27 


over  to  second  speed.  If  the  engine  begins  to  labor 
when  on  second,  shift  the  gears  to  the  first  speed  notch. 

After  a long  climb  has  been  made  if  you  bring  the 
car  to  a stop  throttle  down  the  engine  and  let  it  run 
for  five  minutes  so  that  it  will  cool  off  gradually;  by 
so  doing  you  will  find  it  will  work  much  better  when 
it  is  started  again. 

When  Going  Down  a Hill. — If  you  are  not 

already  running  on  high  gear  when  starting  down  a hill 
throw  the  gear  shift  lever  over  to  high,  press  out  the 
clutch  and  let  the  car  coast. 

Keep  the  speed  of  the  car  under  control  with  the 
foot  brake  and  use  the  emergency  brake  only  if  neces- 
sary. On  reaching  the  bottom  of  the  hill  when  the 
speed  of  both  the  engine  and  the  car  is  the  same  let 
the  clutch  in  again. 

Should  the  hill  be  a very  steep  one  the  engine  can  be 
used  as  a brake;  to  do  this  throw  the  gear  shift  lever 
into  second  just  before  you  start  down,  switch  off  the 
ignition  system,  and  let  the  clutch  in  very  gradually; 
of  course  you  use  the  brakes  as  before. 

When  on  Bad  Roads. — Suppose  in  driving  along 
you  come  to  a bit  of  road  that  is  bad,  don’t  try  to  run  on 
your  high  gear  but  shift  the  gear  lever  over  to  second 
right  away. 

Never  hit  a hollow  or  a bump  end  on  but  go  over 
the  rut  or  ridge  very  gently  at  a slant  for  then  the 
springs  won’t  get  the  full  shock  all  together  but  one  at 
a time. 

Should  the  road  be  muddy,  or  sandy,  the  engine  may 
commence  to  pound,  or  to  run  badly;  the  remedy  for 


28  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


this  is  to  retard  the  spark  by  setting  down  the  spark 
lever  and  you  will  quickly  find  a point  where  the  en- 
gine works  smoothly. 

What  to  Do  When  the  Car  Skids. — Driving 
over  wet  streets  without  chains  on  the  rear  tires  is  a 
dangerous  procedure,  but  sometimes  it  can’t  be  helped. 

To  keep  the  car  from  skidding  take  all  curves  very 
slowly  and  use  your  brakes  very  gently.  Should  the 
car  begin  to  skid  the  rear  wheels  will  slip  sidewise  and 
this  is  your  cue  to  instantly  turn  the  front  wheels  in  the 
direction  the  car  is  skidding;  if  you  do  this  quickly 
enough  the  car  will  skid  but  little  farther. 

Sometimes  when  the  brakes  are  put  on  too  hard  the 
car  will  take  a notion  to  skid  and  also  when  the  power 
is  too  suddenly  applied;  in  either  case  the  thing  to 
do  is  to  release  the  brakes  and  the  car  will  right  itself 
again. 

The  Rules  of  the  Road. — When  you  meet  an- 
other vehicle  on  the  road  pass  it  on  the  right  side  as 
shown  at  A in  Fig.  11.  Should  you  overtake  a vehicle 
and  want  to  pass  it,  toot  your  horn  and  drive  ahead  of 
it  on  the  left-hand  side  and  as  rapidly  as  possible,  but 
without  cutting  in  short  ahead  of  it,  as  shown  at  B. 

When  coming  to  a cross-road  or  a street  where  you 
cannot  get  a clear  view  of  the  road  in  both  directions, 
slow  down  your  car  to  a speed  where  you  can  easily 
stop  it  should  there  be  another  vehicle  coming  from 
either  direction. 

When  you  want  to  turn  your  car  into  another  street, 
or  road,  to  the  right  keep  your  car  as  near  the  right- 
hand  curb  as  possible  as  shown  at  C in  Fig.  11.  When 


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Pig.  11. — Turning  into  another  street 


30  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


you  turn  into  another  street  to  the  left  you  should  go 
around  the  center  of  the  intersecting  streets  as  shown 
at  D.  The  wrong  way  is  shown  at  E. 

When  you  intend  to  turn  to  the  right  hold  out  your 
hand  on  the  right  side  of  the  car  and  when  you  intend 
to  turn  to  the  left  hold  out  your  hand  on  the  left  side 
of  the  car  so  that  those  behind  you  will  know  what 
you  are  going  to  do.  Also  signal  in  the  same  way  when 
you  are  slowing  down  or  are  about  to  stop. 

When  nearing  a railroad  crossing  throw  the  gear  shift 
lever  over  into  second  speed  and  drive  up  cautiously 
to  see  if  you  are  safe  in  making  it  and  if  you  conclude 
you  are,  accelerate  the  engine  so  that  there  will  be  no 
danger  of  stalling  it. 

When  approaching  frightened  horses  bring  your  car 
to  a stop  if  necessary  and  sometimes  you  may  have  to 
stop  the  motor.  Then  if  anything  happens  it  won’t  be 
your  fault. 

To  Equalize  the  Traction. — Always  use  tires  of 
the  same  size  and  tires  having  the  same  tread  on  the 
rear  wheels,  and  if  you  use  chains  use  them  in  pairs. 

A difference  in  the  diameters  of  the  rear  tires  makes 
the  tractive  effort  of  the  wheels  vary  and  this  makes 
the  differential  work  all  the  time  the  car  is  running, 
thus  causing  needless  loss  of  power  and  a useless  wear- 
ing of  the  parts. 


CHAPTER  III 


THE  VARIOUS  PARTS  OF  A CAR 

Just  as  all  gasoline  motor  cars  of  the  passenger  type 
have  the  same  general  design  so  also  all  of  them  are 
built  on  the  same  general  lines  and  operate  on  the  same 
general  principles. 

This  being  true  it  is  obvious  that  if  you  understand 
the  construction  and  operation  of  any  one  car  you  will 
have  a pretty  good  working  knowledge  of  all  the  others 
and  so  the  first  thing  you  ought  to  do  before  you  buy 
a car  is  to  know  something  about  one. 

The  Main  Parts  of  a Car. — A motor  car  of  what- 
ever kind  consists  of  five  chief  parts  and  these  are: 

1.  The  frame. 

2.  The  running  gear,  or  chassis. 

3.  The  power  plant. 

4.  The  transmission  mechanism,  and 

5.  The  body. 

The  Running1  Gear,  or  Chassis. — The  word  chas- 
sis1 (pronounced  cha'ze ) includes  (1)  the  front  axle; 
(2)  the  steering  gear,  which  turns  the  front  wheels; 

1 This  is  a good  old  French  military  word  and  means  the  car- 
riage on  which  a gun  is  mounted  so  that  it  can  be  run  in  and  out 
of  a battery. 


31 


32  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


(3)  the  rear  curie;  (4)  the  wheels  and  (5)  the  brakes, 
all  of  which  are  mounted  on  (6)  the  frame. 

What  They  Are  Made  of  and  How. — The 
Frame. — This  is  the  part  on  and  around  which  all  the 
other  parts  are  built.  It  is  made  of  a pair  of  channel 
section  beams,  or  side  members  as  they  are  called,  and 
these  are  strongly  braced  by  cross  members  and  gusset 
plates  to  prevent  it  from  weaving  and  twisting.  The 


GRE./1SE  CUP 


Fig.  12. — The  front  axle  and  steering  knuckle  assembly. 

best  frames  are  made  of  chrome  nickel  heat-treated  steel. 

The  Front  Axle. — This  is  usually  made  of  an  I beam 
section  of  vanadium  steel — which  will  twist  but  will 
not  break — and  to  the  ends  of  which  ball  or  roller  bear- 
ing hubs  are  fitted;  the  hubs  are  swung  on  the  axle 
by  means  of  pivot  jaws  and  the  steering  knuckles,  as 
the  swinging  parts  are  called,  are  connected  together 
with  a connecting  rod,  all  of  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  12. 

The  Steering  Gear. — As  shown  at  A in  Fig.  13  the 
steering  gear  consists  of  the  steering  wheel,  which  oper- 
ates either  a worm  gear  as  shown  at  B,  or  a screw  and 
nut  movement  as  at  C by  means  of  a shaft  which  passes 
through  the  steering  post ; this  motion  is  transmitted 


Pig.  13. — B.  Worm  gear  exposed,  showing  bearings  and  thru  si 
C.  Screw  and  nut  gear. 


33 


34  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


to  a 'pitman  arm  by  the  gear  or  nut ; in  turn  the  pitman 
arm  is  pivoted  to  one  end  of  the  connecting  rod  while 
the  other  end  is  pivoted  to  the  drag  link  which  moves 
the  steering  knuckles.  The  way  in  which  the  front 
axle  and  the  steering  gear  are  fixed  to  the  frame  is 
shown  in  Fig.  14. 


The  Rear  Axle. — This  is  made  up  of  a lot  of  parts, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  15  ; first  there  are  two  steel  axle  shafts , 
one  for  each  of  the  rear  wheels,  and  these  are  usually 
roller  bearing ; these  shafts  are  enclosed  in  a tube  called 
a housing,  and  the  inside  ends  of  the  latter  are  welded 
to  the  differential  gear  case  while  the  outside  ends  are 
joined  to  the  brake  flange  plates. 

Rear  axles  are  of  (1)  the  semi-floating  type  or  (2) 
the  full  floating  type.  These  terms  simply  mean  the 
way  or  method  by  which  the  weight  of  the  rear  end  of 
the  car  is  held  up  by  the  axle. 

With  the  semi-floating  axle  the  weight  is  carried 


THE  VARIOUS  PARTS  OF  A CAR 


35 


first  by  the  axle  shafts  and  then  it  is  transmitted  to 
the  housing.  In  the  full  floating  type  the  weight  is  car- 
ried entirely  by  the  housing.  Both  of  these  types  are 
good  and  both  are  used  in  the  best  makes  of  cars. 

The  Suspension. — By  which  is  meant  the  manner 
and  the  means  employed  for  securing  the  frame  of  the 
car  to  the  running  gear.  This  is  done  by  using  springs 
of  various  kinds  and  the  best  suspension  is  the  one  that 


absorbs  the  shocks  of  uneven  roads  to  the  greatest  ex- 
tent for  this  not  only  makes  easier  riding  but  it  saves 
the  machinery  as  well. 

Five  types  of  springs  are  used  for  motor  car  sus- 
pension and  these  are  (1)  half  elliptic;  (2)  three- 
quarter  elliptic;  (3)  full  elliptic;  (4)  platform  and 
(5)  cantilever,  all  of  which  are  shown  in  Fig.  16. 

The  front  springs  are  generally  of  the  half  or  semi- 
elliptic  type;  these  springs  are  fixed  to  the  axle  with 
axle  clips  and  to  the  frame  with  bolts — as  shown  in 
Fig.  14;  it  will  also  be  observed  that  the  housing  of 
the  steering  gear  is  attached  to  the  frame. 


36  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


Over  half  of  the  rear  springs  used  on  cars  are  of 
the  three-quarter  elliptic  type,  with  a sprinkling  of  full 
elliptic,  a few  half-elliptic  and  a very  small  percentage 
of  the  platform  and  cantilever  types.  Fig.  15  shows  how 
the  frame  is  mounted  on  the  rear  axle  by  means  of 
three-quarter  elliptic  springs,  and  Fig.  16  shows  how  a 
cantilever  spring  is  mounted. 

The  Service  and  Emergency  Brakes. — Fundamen- 
tally a brake  is  a friction  device  where  a fixed  surface 
rubs  against  a moving  surface  with  the  result  that 
the  moving  surface  is  brought  to  a stop.  On  a railroad 
car  a brake  shoe  presses  against  the  surface  of  the  mov- 
ing wheel,  while  in  a motor  car  a brake  band,  usually 
lined  with  asbestos,  presses  against  a brake  drum  which 
is  fixed  to  the  rear  wheel. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  brakes  on  every  car  and  these 
are  (1)  the  foot  or  service  brake,  which  is  operated  by 
a foot  pedal,  and  (2)  the  hand  or  emergency  brake 
which  is  controlled  by  a hand  lever  on  the  side  of  the 
car. 

These  brakes  work  inside  and  outside  of  a brake  drum 
bolted  to  the  rear  wheel ; the  foot  or  service  brake  con- 
sists of  a steel  band  lined  with  a strip  of  woven  asbestos 
and  when  you  push  the  brake  pedal  it  draws  the  band 
together  and  tightens  it  on  the  brake  drum  as  shown 
at  A in  Fig.  17 ; hence  a brake  of  this  kind  is  said  to 
be  of  the  contracting  type. 

The  hand  or  emergency  brake  consists  of  a steel  band 
covered  with  either  asbestos  or  with  a special  kind  of 
bronze,  and  this  one  works  inside  the  brake  drum  so 
that  when  you  pull  the  hand  lever  back  the  brake  band 


THE  VARIOUS  PARTS  OF  A CAR 


37 


is  spread  apart  and  rubs  against  tbe  drum  as  shown  at 
B ; for  this  reason  it  is  called  an  expanding  brake.  The 
mechanism  of  the  service  or  contracting,  and  the  emer- 
gency or  expanding  brakes  is  shown  in  detail  at  C in 


QUARTER  ELLIPTIC  5EMI  ELLIPTIC 


PLATFORM  SPRING 

Fig.  16. — Kinds  of  motor  car  springs. 


Fig.  17,  while  that  of  the  assembled  brakes  on  the 
rear  axle  is  shown  in  Fig.  15. 

The  Wheels. — Three  kinds  of  wheels  are  used  on 
motor  cars  and  these  are  (1)  wood  wheels;  (2)  wire 
wheels  and  (3)  hollow  steel  spokes  which  resemble 
wood.  When  wood  wheels  or  hollow  steel  spokes  are 


38  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


used  the  weight  of  the  car  rests  on  the  lower  spokes, 
while  with  wire  wheels  the  spokes  above  the  hub  sup- 
port the  weight  of  the  car. 

Here  are  the  claims  of  the  makers  of  both  wood  and 
wire  wheels.  Wood  wheels  are  cheaper,  stronger  and 
will  stand  more  strain  and  rough  usage ; they  are  easier 
to  keep  clean  and  can  he  washed  in  half  the  time,  and 

REAR/NG- 


Fig.  17. — A.  Sketch  of  external  contracting  or  service  brake. 
B.  Sketch  of  internal  e:  panding  or  emergency  brake. 

C.  The  parts  of  the  brake  assembled. 


lastly  they  are  neater  in  appearance  and  will  not  rust. 
Wire  wheels  are  lighter  and  more  elastic;  they  save 
tires  and  gasoline;  they  possess  great  resisting  strength 
and  will  stand  severe  shocks,  and  finally,  they  add  to 
the  attractiveness  of  a car. 

Kinds  of  Tires  and  Rims. — A rubber  tire  for  a motor 
car  is  formed  of  two  parts  and  these  are  (1)  the  inner 
tube  and  (2)  the  casing. 


THE  VARIOUS  PARTS  OF  A CAR 


39 


The  Inner  Tubes. — The  inner  tube  is  simply  a thin 
rubber  tube  with  the  ends  joined  together  and  fitted 
with  a valve,  as  shown  at  A and  B in  Fig.  18 ; this  is 
placed  inside  of  the  casing  and  when  the  latter  is  put 
on  the  rim  of  the  wheel  the  valve  stem  sticks  through 
a hole  in  the  rim  and  felloe.  It  is  then  pumped  up  with 

RUBBER  CAP 


Fig.  18. — Kinds  of  tires  and  rims.  A.  An  inner  tube  with  valve. 
B.  The  valve  of  an  inner  tube. 


air  and  this  keeps  the  casing  hard  and  yet  makes  it 
elastic. 

The  Casings. — There  are  two  types  of  casings  used 
and  these  are  (1)  the  clincher  as  shown  at  C and  (2) 
the  straight  bead  as  shown  at  D.  The  bead  on  a plain 
clincher  casing  is  made  of  soft  rubber  while  the  bead  on 
a straight  bead  casing  is  made  stiffer  and  is  often  re- 
inforced with  wire. 

The  Rims. — There  are  three  types  of  rims  made  for 
motor  car  wheels  and  these  are  (1)  the  plain  clincher 


40  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 

rim  as  shown  at  E,  (2)  the  quick  detachable  rim  as 
shown  at  F,  and  (3)  the  demountable  rim  as  shown 
at  G. 

The  Clincher  Rim. — For  a plain  clincher  rim  a 
clincher  bead  casing  only  can  be  used  and  you  will  see 
from  the  clincher  casing  shown  at  C that  the  beads 


TREAD  OF 
HEAVY 
CLOSE 
WOVEN 
COTTON, 


CLINCHEi 

BEAD 


RUBBER  NON  SKID  TREAD 


TREAD  COVERING 
OF  RUBBER 


BEAD  CORE 
OF  RUBBER 
OR  WIRE 


STRAIGHT 

BEAD 


Pig.  18. — C.  A clincher  casing.  D.  A straight  bead  casing. 


slip  under  the  curved  sides  of  the  rim  shown  at  E.  This 
type  of  rim  is  to  he  found  only  on  cars  of  the  vintage 
of  1910  or  before,  and  a few  present  cars  of  cheaper 
make.  To  take  off  a clincher  tire  the  air  must  be  let 
out  of  the  inner  tube  and  the  valve  stem  pushed  up  into 
the  casing  as  far  as  it  will  go.  The  bead  can  then  be 
forced  in  from  the  curved  side  with  a tire  iron  and  when 
this  has  been  done  all  around  the  tire  can  be  pulled  off. 

The  Quick  Detachable  Rim. — A cross-section  of  a 
quick  detachable  rim  is  shown  at  F.  The  way  it  is 
constructed  makes  it  easy  to  take  off  and  put  on  a tire 
as  against  the  clincher  type.  It  consists  of  two  clincher 
rings,  or  they  can  be  straight  bead  rings,  and  a third 


THE  VARIOUS  PARTS  OF  A CAR 


41 


and  outside  ring  which  can  only  be  taken  off  when  the 
tire  is  deflated. 


CURVE  SIDE 
TO  HOLD 
CURVED  BEAD 
OF  TIRE 

FELLOE 


R/HO-5  TO  HOLD 
TIRE  OH  BA HD 


THI5RIHC- 
COHES  OFF 
A 'EXT 

' 'OUTER  RING) 


\ 

- SPOKE 

E 

FELLOE 


Fig.  18. — E.  A clincher  rim.  F.  A quick  detachable  rim. 


To  take  a tire  off  the  inner  tube  must  be  deflated 
first  and  the  valve  stem  pushed  up  into  the  casing  as 


DEMOUNTABLE  RIM 
WHICH  CARRIES  THE  TIRE 


Fig.  18. — G.  The  demountable  rim. 

far  as  it  will  go ; this  done,  the  third  and  outside  ring, 
which  is  cut  at  one  place,  can  then  be  easily  taken  off. 


42  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


After  the  third  ring  is  off  the  clincher,  or  straight  bead 
ring  can  be  slipped  off  and  then  the  tire. 

The  Demountable  Rim. — A later  device  to  help  the 
impatient  motorist  on  his  swift  way  is  the  demountable 
rim.  In  this  type  the  tire  is  put  on  a separate  rim 
which  may  be  either  of  the  clincher  or  straight  bead 
type ; this  demountable  rim  can  be  taken  completely  off 
of  the  rim  fixed  to  the  felloe  when  a new  rim  with  a 
fresh  tire  can  be  put  on  in  its  place.  In  this  way  a 
tire  can  be  changed  in  a few  minutes  and  the  punctured 
tube  or  blown-out  casing  can  be  repaired  when  you  get 
home. 

The  demountable  rim  is  held  in  place  by  a removable 
rim  band  bolted  to  the  felloe  of  the  wheel  as  shown  at 
G ; when  the  nuts  are  taken  off  of  the  rim  band  the  lat- 
ter can  be  slipped  off  and  then  the  demountable  rim 
which  carries  the  tire. 

The  Removable  Wheel. — The  last  word  in  getting 
over  tire  troubles  is  to  remove  the  whole  wheel  with 
the  tire  on  it  from  the  hub  and  replace  it  with  a new 
wheel  and  tire.  This  can  be  done  with  wire  wheels 
only. 

About  the  Power  Plant. — The  power  plant  of  a 
motor  car  means  the  engine  and  all  the  auxiliary  parts 
that  have  to  do  with  the  initial  development  of  the 
power. 

Engines  for  motor  cars  are  built  with  4,  5,  6,  8 and  12 
cylinders,  and  develop  from  20  horse-power  which  is 
used  in  the  cheapest  cars  to  upwards  of  120  horse- 
power in  the  larger  touring  cars. 

The  engine  is  usually  a self-contained  unit,  that  is, 


THE  VARIOUS  PARTS  OF  A CAR 


43 


all  its  parts  are  built  in  or  on  to  it  and  the  whole 
plant  is  then  bolted  rigidly  to  the  side  and  cross  mem- 
bers of  the  frame.  The  design,  construction  and  opera- 
tion of  engines  will  be  taken  up  in  the  next  chapter. 

The  Transmission  Mechanism. — Between  the 
crank  shaft  of  the  engine  and  the  axle  shafts  of  the 
rear-axle,  which  set  at  right  angles  to  the  former,  there 
are  several  mechanical  devices  interposed,  the  purposes 
of  which  will  be  seen  presently,  and  these  when  taken 
together  are  called  the  transmission. 

The  transmission  includes  the  following  devices  (1) 
the  clutch;  (2)  the  transmission  gears  and  their  con- 
trol; (3)  one  and  sometimes  more  universal  joints ; (4) 
the  propeller  shaft , and  (5)  the  differential  gears. 

The  Clutch. — The  purpose  of  a clutch  is  to  enable 
you  to  connect  and  disconnect  the  engine  from  the  pro- 
peller shaft,  as  the  main  driving  shaft  is  called,  at  wilL 
The  reason  a clutch  is  needed  is  because  a gasoline  en- 
gine can  only  develop  power  when  it  is  running  at  a 
fairly  high  speed,  as  I think  I mentioned  before ; hence 
when  starting  your  car  the  engine  must  be  gently  and 
gradually  connected  with  the  drive  or  the  engine  will 
stall  because  it  is  overtaxed. 

There  are  two  general  types  of  clutches  and  these 
are  (1)  the  friction  clutch  and  (2)  the  magnetic  clutch. 
Friction  clutches  are  used  on  all  cars  except  those  of 
one  make  and  this  is  the  Owen,  which  uses  the  magnetic 
clutch. 

Friction  Clutches. — So  called  because  a surface  fixed 
to  the  crank  shaft  of  the  engine  and  another  surface 
fixed  to  the  driving  shaft  of  the  car  will,  when  pressed 


44  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


together  hard  enough,  cause  the  first  one  to  turn  the 
second  due  to  the  friction  between  them. 

There  are  two  types  of  friction  clutches,  namely, 
(1)  the  cone  clutch  and  (2)  the  disk  clutch. 

The  cone  clutch  is  the  most  popular  and  is  shown  at 
A in  Fig.  19.  It  is  formed  of  a conical  recessed  mem- 
ber fixed  to  the  crank  shaft  of  the  engine — the  flywheel 


a P AND  OPERATING- 

n U MECHAN/5NJ 

Fig.  19. — A.  How  a cone  clutch  works.  B.  Cone  clutch  and 
operating  gear  of  an  ordinary  ear. 


is  generally  used  for  this  part  of  the  clutch — and  a cone 
which  is  secured  to  the  drive  shaft ; the  latter  is  usually 
made  of  aluminum  or  pressed  steel  and  faced  with 
leather. 

Of  course  when  the  cone  is  pressed  into  the  recessed 
flywheel  the  friction  between  them  will  make  the  cone 
revolve.  By  letting  the  cone  into  the  recessed  member 
very  gently  the  former  will  revolve  slowly  at  first  and 
then  faster  and  faster  until  both  are  turning  at  the 
same  speed. 


THE  VARIOUS  PARTS  OF  A CAR  45 


A stiff  spiral  spring  forces  the  cone  into  contact  and 
keeps  it  there  unless  it  is  compressed  by  pushing  in  on 
the  clutch  pedal  when  the  cone  is  pushed  out  and  so 
comes  the  saying  “push  out  the  clutch.”  A cone  clutch 
of  a car  is  shown  at  B. 

Disk  Friction  Clutches. — Clutches  of  this  type  de- 
pend for  their  operation  on  the  friction  produced  by  a 


number  of  circular  rings  of  sheet  metal,  called  driving 
disks , which  are  fixed  on  studs  and  connected  with  the 
crank  shaft  of  the  engine,  pressing  against  a like  num- 
ber of  circular  rings  of  sheet  metal  called  the  driven 
disks,  which  are  mounted  on  the  drive  shaft,  and  so 
that  they  interleave  as  shown  at  C in  Fig.  19. 

A spiral  spring  keeps  the  disks  on  the  drive  shaft  in 
close  contact  with  the  disks  on  the  studs  which  are 
keyed  to  the  flywheel  of  the  engine  except  when  pressed 
out  by  the  clutch  pedal. 


CRANK 
SHAFT  OF 
ENGINE 


c 


DRIVEN  DISKS 
FIXED  TO  DRIVING 
SHAFT 


Fig.  19. — C.  How  a disk  clutch  works. 


46  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


Two  kinds  of  disk  friction  clutches  are  used  and  these 
are  (1)  the  dry  plate  disk  clutch  and  (2)  the  oil  im- 
mersed disk  clutch.  In  the  former  the  disks,  which  are 
keyed  to  the  inside  of  the  flywheel,  are  covered  with 
woven  asbestos  cloth  and  these  work  against  the  soft 
steel  disks  which  are  keyed  to  the  drive  shaft.  These 


plates  run  dry,  that  is,  they  are  not  immersed  in  oiL  A 
Chalmers  dry  plate  clutch  is  shown  at  D. 

In  the  second  kind  the  disks  secured  to  the  flywheel 
are  made  of  steel  plates  as  are  also  the  driven  disks, 
but  the  latter  have  a large  number  of  holes  in  them 
into  which  corks  are  forced.  The  whole  clutch  is  then 
immersed  in  oil. 

The  Magnetic  Clutch. — In  the  magnetic  clutch  mag- 
netism is  used  to  form  the  connection  between  the  crank 
shaft  and  the  drive  shaft  instead  of  friction. 

The  principle  of  the  magnetic  clutch  is  clearly  pic- 


THE  VARIOUS  PARTS  OF  A CAR 


4? 


tured  at  E in  Fig.  19.  Suppose  that  a horseshoe  magnet 
is  mounted  so  that  it  can  he  revolved  by  a crank  and  a 
piece  of  soft  iron  is  mounted  so  that  it  can  be  rotated 
between  the  poles  of  the  magnet;  now  if  you  turn  the 
crank  the  iron  will  turn  with  it  for  it  is  held  to  the  poles 
of  the  magnet  by  magnetic  attraction. 


HORSESHOE 


Fig.  19. — E.  How  the  magnetic  clutch  works. 

F.  How  the  magnetic  clutch  works  on  the  Owen  Car. 

Place  this  arrangement  in  a car  as  shown  at  E ; re- 
volve the  magnet  by  means  of  the  engine  and  connect  the 
piece  of  iron  to  the  propeller  shaft  when  the  torque,  that 
is,  the  turning  power  of  the  engine,  will  be  transmitted 
to  the  propeller  shaft  by  the  magnetic  force. 

Instead  of  a steel  magnet  use  an  electro-magnet  so 
that  you  can  make  it  as  weak  or  as  strong  as  you  please. 


48  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


Now  when  you  want  to  change  speeds  you  only  need  to 
change  the  strength  of  the  magnet  and  if  you  weaken 
it  there  will  L?a  slippage  between  it  and  the  iron,  and 


Fig.  20. — A.  How  a universal  joint  works. 


in  this  way  you  can  get  any  speed  you  want  without 
friction  clutches  and  without  transmission  gears. 

The  Universal  J oint. — Since  it  is  impossible  for  the 
propeller  shaft,  which  is  bobbing  up  and  down  all  the 


UWFRSAL  JOWT 
OfACHE  V ROUT  CAR 


Fig.  20. — B.  The  universal  joint  of  a Chevrolet  Car. 

time  the  car  is  running,  to  be  directly  connected  and  in 
alignment  with  the  rigid  crank  shaft  of  the  engine  a 
universal  joint  is  used  to  couple  them  together. 


THE  VARIOUS  PARTS  OF  A CAR  49 


Now  a universal  joint  is  a coupling  that  permits  both 
of  the  connected  shafts  to  turn  no  matter  what  position 
they  are  in.  In  its  simplest  form  it  consists  of  a TJ- 
shaped  end  on  each  shaft  and  these  are  secured  with 
pivots  to  the  ends  of  an  X as  shown  at  A in  Fig.  20. 


Fig.  20. — C.  A universal  joint  of  a Pierce- Arrow  Car. 


The  universal  joint  used  in  the  Chevrolet  car  is  shown 
at  B and  the  kind  that  is  used  in  the  Pierce-Arrow 
car  is  shown  at  C. 

The  Transmission. — Since  a gasoline  engine  must 
run  at  a very  high  speed  and  a car  runs  anywhere  from 
0-f-  up  to  50  miles — a little  more  when  the  constable 
isn’t  looking  doesn’t  matter — these  differences  must  be 
equalized  and  this  is  done  through  what  is  called  the 
transmission. 

The  purpose  of  the  transmission,  then,  is  to  reduce 
the  speed  developed  by  the  engine  before  it  is  trans- 


50  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


mitted  to  the  propeller  shaft  as  may  be  required,  and 
hence  it  follows  that  the  smaller  fast  moving  force  of 
the  engine  is  changed  into  a slower  but  more  powerful 
force  before  it  is  transmitted  to  the  propeller  shaft. 

Transmissions  are  of  two  general  types  and  these  are 
(1)  those  using  change  gears  and  (2)  those  using  fric- 
tion wheels.  Change  gear  transmissions  can  further 
be  divided  into  two  classes,  namely  (a)  those  with  slid- 
ing gears  and  (b)  those  with  planetary  gears.  Sliding 
gear  transmissions  have  three  or  four  forward  speeds, 
while  planetary  gear  transmissions  are  usually  limited  to 
two  speeds  ahead,  and  both  kinds  have  one  reverse  speed. 

Sliding  Gear  Transmission. — Now  let’s  take  a three 
speed  forward  and  reverse  transmission  such  as  is  used 
in  nearly  all  medium-priced  cars  and  find  out  just 
how  it  works.  To  begin  with  we’ll  consider  the  forward 
speed  gears  first,  that  is,  those  that  propel  the  car  ahead, 
and  then  we’ll  look  into  the  reverse  speed  gears. 

Suppose,  by  way  of  illustration,  you  fasten  a small 
gear  on  the  end  of  the  crank  shaft  of  the  engine  and 
a large  gear  to  a counter-shaft  so  that  the  gears  will 
mesh  as  shown  at  A in  Fig.  21.  It  must  be  clear  now 
that  the  crank  shaft,  or  clutch  shaft  as  it  is  called  be- 
cause it  connects  with  the  clutch  and  which  in  turn  con- 
nects with  the  crank  shaft  of  the  engine,  will  make  the 
counter-shaft  revolve,  though  not  so  fast  and  in  the 
opposite  direction.  Now  set  a third,  or  main-shaft , in 
line  with  the  crank  shaft  and  put  a small  gear  on 
this  one  which  you  can  slide  on  it  and  yet  so  that  it 
will  revolve  with  it ; one  way  of  doing  this  is  to  make 
the  shaft  square  and  the  hole  in  the  gear  square. 


THE  VARIOUS  PARTS  OF  A CAR 


51 


Key  another  and  second  gear  on  the  counter-shaft  so 
that  it  will  turn  with  it;  if  now  the  sliding  gear  on 
the  main-shaft  is  shifted  over  so  that  it  will  mesh  with 
the  second  gear  on  the  counter-shaft  as  shown  at  B,  of 
course  the  power  will  he  transmitted  from  the  engine 
to  the  counter-shaft  and  thence  to  the  main-shaft,  which 


CLUTCH  SHAFT 
TO  ENGINE 

(0 


SECONDARY 

SHAFT 


CLUTCH  SHAF7 
to  ENGINE 

.<0  to. 

FOPWRRD^  1 — * ^ REVERSE' 

TO  MAIN  DRIVE  SHAFT  T7A IN DRIVE 

SHAFT 


REVERSE  GEAR 


CLUTCH  SHAFT 
TO  ENGINE 

feUSS  & 

FORWARD 

MAIN  DRIVE  D/RECT DRIVE 
SHAFT 

Fig.  21. — A,  B,  C and  D.  Diagrams  showing  how  forward  and 
reverse  transmission  gears  work. 


is  direct  connected  to  the  propeller-shaft  through  the 
gears,  and  the  speed  at  which  the  latter  revolves  will 
depend  on  the  speed  of  the  engine  and  on  the  relative 
sizes  of  the  change  gears.  By  using  gears  of  different 
ratios  three  or  four  speeds  may  be  had. 

In  looking  at  any  picture  of  a transmission  just  hear 
in  mind  that  there  are  two  separate  and  distinct  shafts 


52  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


in  the  gear  case  for  forward  speeds,  and  you  will  have 
no  trouble  in  understanding  it. 

When  the  car  is  running  on  second  gear  and  you  shift 
the  gear  lever  over  to  direct , or  high  speed,  the  end  of 
the  main-shaft  is  forced  into  the  end  of  the  clutch 
shaft  and  locked  there  so  that  the  engine  is  direct 
connected  with  the  propeller  shaft  as  shown  at  C ; this 


is  the  reason  only  two  pairs  of  gears  are  needed  for  a 
three-speed  transmission  and  three  pairs  of  gears  are 
needed  for  a four-speed  transmission. 

To  reverse  the  direction  of  the  propeller  shaft  a fourth 
shaft,  called  a secondary-shaft , but  which  is  really  only 
a pin,  which  has  a gear  that  meshes  with  one  on  the 
counter-shaft  and  another  gear  that  engages  a gear  on 
the  main-shaft,  is  used.  It  is  hard  to  show  this  second- 
ary-shaft in  a picture  when  the  other  two  shafts  are 
seen  because  it  is  directly  under  the  counter-shaft,  but 
the  diagram  shown  at  D will  give  you  the  idea  of  it. 


THE  VARIOUS  PARTS  OF  A CAR 


53 


The  sliding  gears  are  shifted  along  on  the  propeller 
shaft  by  means  of  a shifter  yoke  which  fits  into  grooved 
disks  as  shown  at  E ; the  shifter  shaft  is  secured  to  the 
yoke  and  the  gear  shift  lever  is  fastened  to  the  shaft. 

The  transmission  assembly , as  the  shafts  and  gears 
are  called,  are  enclosed  in  a transmission  case  made  of 


PLANET  GEAR 


Pig.  22. — A.  Diagram  showing  how  a planetary  transmission  gear 

works. 


cast  aluminum  and  the  case  is  then  partly  filled  with 
fiber  grease  or  some  other  gear  compound. 

Planetary  Gear  Transmission. — In  this  kind  of  trans- 
mission all  of  the  gears  are  in  mesh  all  the  time.  The 
scheme  is  shown  at  A in  Eig.  22,  in  which  the  driv- 
ing gear  is  fixed  to  the  clutch-shaft  and  the  four  small 
planet  gears  turn  on  spindles  fixed  to  the  ring  plate; 
these  mesh  with  the  driving  gear  and  also  with  the  large 
internal  ring  gear. 


54  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 

A br£ak e band  is  fixed  around  tbe  plate  carrying  tbe 
small  gears  so  that  tbe  plate  can  be  stopped  from  turn- 
ing when  only  tbe  small  gears  will  revolve.  A brake 
band  is  also  fixed  around  tbe  ring  gear  so  that  it  can  be 
stopped  from  turning.  A change  of  speeds  is  bad  as 
follows : 


Fig.  22. — B.  Planetary  gear  transmission  used  on  the  Ford  Car. 

"When  bigb  speed  is  wanted  tbe  brake  bands  are  loose 
and  all  of  tbe  gears  revolve  together ; for  low  speed  tbe 
brake  band  around  tbe  ring  plate  is  tightened  so  that 
it  cannot  turn  and  this  forces  it  to  revolve  in  tbe  same 
direction  as  tbe  driving  gear  but  at  a much  slower  speed. 
To  reverse,  tbe  brake  band  around  tbe  ring  gear  is 
tightened  and  then  tbe  ring  gear  revolves  in  tbe  op- 
posite direction  to  tbe  driving  gear,  though  much  slower. 
Tbe  Eord,  which  is  shown  at  B,  and  all  other  planetary 
transmissions,  work  on  this  principle. 

Friction  Wheel  Transmission.— This  type  of 


REVERSE  DRUM 
. BUSH/NG 
.SLOW  SPEED 
DRUM  BUSHING 


DRUM 


THE  VARIOUS  PARTS  OF  A CAR 


55 


transmission  consists  of  a large  wheel,  or  disk,  fixed  to 
the  end  of  the  crank  shaft  and  a smaller  wheel  secured 
to  the  propeller  shaft ; now  when  the  small  wheel  presses 
against  the  large  disk,  as  shown  at  A in  Fig.  23,  it  is 
made  to  revolve  by  the  rolling  frictional  contact  be- 
tween them. 

By  changing  the  position  of  the  driven  wha^i  on 


DRIVING  PI 5 K 


Fig.  23. — A.  Diagram  showing  how  a friction  transmission  works. 

the  surface  of  the  driving  disk  a wide  variation  of  speed 
can  be  had  and  by  moving  the  position  of  the  small 
wheel  from  one  side  to  the  other  across  the  center  of 
the  large  disk  both  forward  and  reverse  speeds  can  be 
had.  This  transmission  also  serves  the  purpose  of  a 
clutch.  It  is  used  in  the  Metz  and  the  Lambert  cars 
as  shown  at  B. 

The  Propeller  Shaft. — This  shaft  couples  the  trans- 
mission gears  with  the  differential  through  a universal 
joint.  It  should  be  made  of  vanadium  steel,  heat- 


56  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


treated,  as  this  alloy  will  not  break  under  torsional 
stresses  but  will  simply  bend. 

The  Final  Drive.— Last  of  all  of  the  running 
gear  is  the  final  drive,  that  is,  the  means  which  trans- 
mits the  power  direct  to  the  rear  wheels.  There  are 

TO  ENGINE 


WHEEL 

Fig.  23. — B.  The  friction  transmission  of  a Metz  Car. 

two  types  of  final  drives  and  these  are  (1)  the  center- 
shaft  and  (2)  the  side  chain  drive. 

With  the  exception  of  three  or  four  of  the  cheaper 
cars  which  use  the  chain  drive  the  center-shaft  drive 
is  used  on  all  passenger  cars. 

The  Differential. — The  reason  a differential  gear  is 
used  is  that  when  the  rear  axle  of  a car  goes  round  a 


THE  VARIOUS  PARTS  OF  A CAR  57 


curve  the  inside  wheel  moves  faster  than  the  outside 
wheel  and  the  gears  must  not  only  drive  the  wheels 


LEFT  HAND 
DIFFERENTIAL  GEAR 

LEFT  HAND 
AXLE  SHAFT 


PROPELLER  SHAFT 


DRIVING  PIN 


GEAR  CASE 

\aEIN  DIFFERENTIAL 

Lg- — ^ PINION 


RIGHT  HAND 
H AXLE  SHAFT 


PIN 
GEAR  CASE 
RING  GEAR 


R/GHT  HAND, 
DIFFERENTIAL  GEAR 

DIFFERENTIAL 
PINION 


Fig.  24. — A.  Diagram  showing  how  the  differential  gears  work. 


timkenbearin- 

bearingadjust 
HE  NT 
BEARING  LOCK 


RING  GEAR- 
DIFFERENTIAL 
GEARS 


DIFFERENTIAL 
GEAR  CASE 
TIMKEN  BEARING 
BEARING  LOCK 
BEARING  ADJUST- 
MENT NUT 


■REAR  AXLE. 
HOUSING 


Fig.  24. — B.  The  differential  gears  in  their  housing  on  the  rear 
axle  of  a Chalmers  Car. 


hut  at  the  same  time  allow  them  to  run  at  different 
speeds. 

The  differential  works  like  this:  A driving  gear  is 
fixed  to  the  end  of  the  propeller  shaft  and  this  meshes 


58  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


with  and  drives  a ring  gear.  To  the  ring  gear  is  fixed 
a differential  gear  case  and  this  turns  with  it.  There 
are  four  differential  gears,  and  one  of  these  is  secured 
to  one  of  the  axle  shafts  and  the  other  to  the  other  axle 
shaft  as  shown  at  A in  Fig.  24;  the  upper  and  lower 


differential  gears  are  pivoted  to  the  gear  case  and  these 
mesh  with  the  gears  fixed  to  the  axle  shafts. 

Now  when  one  of  the  rear  wheels  runs  faster  than 
the  other,  the  pivoted  differential  gears  not  only  re- 
volve on  the  pins  in  the  gear  case,  hut  they  turn  at  the 
same  time  around  the  gears  on  the  axle  shafts.  In  this 
way  any  difference  in  the  speed  of  the  rear  wheels  makes 


<2- 

c2H-  -z^. 
ci- 

<%- 


,0l> 


:^r" 

^fc^L 


UtfHS 

33113dOVd 


O73w£^no 


■W/Or- 


'■^l/AZ/j 


59 


Fig.  26. — The  parts  when  assembled  make  a car. 


60  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


the  differential  gear  on  one  axle  shaft  turn  inde- 
pendently of  the  gear  on  the  other  axle  shaft.  The 
differential  gears  in  the  housing  on  the  rear  axle  are 
shown  at  B. 

The  Chain  Drive . — Occasionally  the  rear  wheels  are 
driven  by  chains  on  sprocket  wheels  like  those  on  a 
bicycle.  Where  this  is  the  case  either  a differential 
or  a friction  transmission  must  also  be  used. 

The  Car  Body.  — The  bodies  of  cars  are  made  of 
wood,  iron  and  aluminum.  Wood  is  very  little  used 
except  where  special  bodies  are  made  to  order.  Pressed 
sheet  iron  is  largely  used  in  the  cheaper  cars  and  pressed 
sheet  aluminum  in  the  better  makes  of  medium  grade 
cars,  but  some  of  the  high  grade  cars  axe  now  using 
aluminum  cast  in  sections  which  are  riveted  together; 
the  shell  thus  formed  is  backed  with  wood  and  it  is  then 
given  15  or  20  coats  of  paint.  A cast  aluminum  car 
body  backed  with  wood  is  shown  in  Pig.  25,  and  an 
assembled  car  is  shown  in  Pig.  26. 


CHAPTER  IV 


HOW  THE  ENGINE  WORKS 

The  power  plants  of  nearly  all  motor  cars  are  gaso- 
line engines,  though  some  of  them  have  electric  motors 
and  a very  few  use  steam  engines. 

The  reason  the  gasoline  engine  is  preferred  is  be- 
cause the  power  is  obtained  directly  inside  the  cylinders, 
whereas  with  the  steam  engine  a high  pressure  boiler 
must  be  used  and  it  is,  in  consequence,  very  hard  to 
keep  the  joints  from  leaking. 

Both  the  gasoline  and  the  steam  engine  are  prime 
movers , but  electricity  as  it  is  produced  today  is  a 
secondary  power,  that  is,  it  must  be  generated  by  some 
other  power  first,  and  this  limits  its  range  of  useful- 
ness. 

The  Gasoline  Engine.— All  gasoline  engines  used 
in  motor  cars  are  built  and  work  on  the  same  funda- 
mental principle,  namely,  that  an  explosive  gas,  called 
the  fuel  mixture , made  by  mixing  air  with  gasoline,  is 
drawn  into  the  cylinder,  where  it  is  compressed  by  the 
piston  and  then  ignited  by  an  electric  spark,  when  the 
resultant  explosion  forces  the  piston  down  and  so  pro- 
duces power. 

As  there  is  only  one  explosion  to  every  other  down 
stroke  of  the  piston  in  the  cylinder,  and  no  explosions  on 

61 


62  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


the  up  strokes,  there  is  only  one  power 1 stroke  to  every 
two  revolutions  of  the  crank  shaft  on  a single  cylinder 
engine;  to  obviate  this  bad  feature  four  or  more  cylin- 
ders are  used,  and  the  pistons  are  so  placed  that  there 
is  a power  stroke  for  every  half  turn  of  the  crank  shaft 
to  which  they  are  all  connected.  In  this  way  the  power 
developed  is  continuous,  or  practically  so. 

The  Parts  of  a Gasoline  Engine. — The  easiest 
way  to  understand  how  a gasoline  engine  is  made  and 
how  it  works  is  to  consider  a one-cylinder  engine  first. 

In  this  case  the  engine  is  built  up  of  (1)  a cylinder 
open  at  one  end  and  closed  at  the  other,  in  which  (2) 
a piston  moves  to  and  fro,  and  this  is  connected  to  (3) 
a connecting  rod,  which  in  turn  is  connected  to  (4) 
a crank  shaft;  then  there  are  (5)  a pair  of  timing  gears, 
one  of  which  is  fixed  to  the  crank  shaft  and  the  other 
to  (6)  a cam  shaft , w7hich,  when  it  revolves,  opens  and 
closes  (7)  a pair  of  valves  at  the  right  moment  to  let 
the  explosive  fuel  mixture  into  the  cylinder,  and  to  let 
out  the  burnt  gases. 

To  supply  the  cylinder  with  the  proper  mixture  of 
gasoline  and  air  (8)  a carburetor  is  connected  between 
the  gasoline  tank  and  the  inlet  valve  in  the  cylinder 
head  and  finally,  to  explode  the  mixture  (9)  an  ignition 
system  is  employed,  that  is,  a high  tension  electric  cur- 
rent is  used  to  make  a spark. 

1 On  a single  cylinder  engine  there  is  1 power  stroke  to  2 revolu- 
tions of  the  crank  shaft;  4-cylindcr,  a power  stroke  every  % revo- 
lution of  the  crank  shaft;  6-cylinder,  a power  stroke  every  1/3 
revolution  of  the  crank  shaft;  8-cylinder,  a power  stroke  every 
% revolution  of  the  crank  shaft;  12-cylinder,  a power  stroke  every 
1/6  revolution  of  the  crank  shaft. 


HOW  THE  ENGINE  WORKS 


63 


In  an  engine  made  for  motor  car  service  where  from 
four  to  twelve  cylinders  form  the  power  plant,  there  are 
added  (10)  a distributor  to  send  the  electric  current 
into  each  cylinder  in  turn  and  at  the  instant  it  is 
needed;  (11)  a cooling  system  to  keep  down  the  heat 
of  the  cylinders  and  (12)  a lubricating  system  for  oil- 
ing the  moving  parts  of  the  engine,  all  of  which  will  be 
described  in  separate  chapters. 

How  the  Engine  Works. — The  operation  of  a 
single  cylinder  engine  can  now  he  followed  easily,  and 
there  is  very  little  more  to  understand  about  a four- 
cylinder  engine  on  up  to  a twelve-cylinder  engine. 

In  Fig.  27,  A,  B,  C and  D represent  the  same 
cylinder  with  the  piston  in  different  positions  at  differ- 
ent time  intervals  during  which  the  crank  shaft  has 
made  two  complete  revolutions. 

To  begin  with  let’s  suppose  that  the  inlet  valve  is 
open  as  shown  at  A,  that  the  piston  is  moving  down 
and  that  the  fuel  mixture  is  being  drawn  into  the  cylin- 
der; the  moment  the  piston  reaches  its  lowest  position 
the  inlet  valve  is  closed  as  shown  at  B and  the  piston 
then  moves  up  and  compresses  the  fuel  mixture. 

At  the  moment  the  piston  reaches  the  top  the  spark 
is  made  and  ignites  the  gas,  when  it  explodes  as  shown 
at  C,  thus  driving  the  piston  down ; hence  this  is  called 
the  power  stroke.  When  the  piston  reaches  the  end  of 
its  power  stroke  the  exhaust  valve  is  opened,  and  when 
the  piston  again  moves  up  it  pushes  the  burnt  gases  out 
of  the  cylinder  as  shown  at  D. 

From  the  above  cycle  of  operation,  as  these  four  move- 
ments of  the  piston  are  called,  you  will  readily  see  that 


64  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


there  is  only  one  effective  stroke  and,  consequently,  only 
one  effective  half  turn  of  the  crank  shaft  in  two  revolu- 
tions on  a single  cylinder  engine.  Now  to  get  an  ef- 
fective stroke  for  each  half  turn  of  the  crank  shaft  so 
that  the  turning  power,  or  torque  as  it  is  called,  is  con- 
tinuous, four  or  more  cylinders  are  used  and  the  pistons 


Mp 


PISTON 


A (crankshaft  B the 
The  suction  stroke  compression 

STROKE 


STROKE 


Fig.  27. — How  a single  cylinder  engine  works.  A,  B,  C and  D 
represent  the  same  cylinder  during  two  revolutions  of 
the  crank  shaft. 


on  all  of  them  are  connected  to  one  crank  shaft  as  shown 
in  the  diagram,  Fig.  28. 

The  Use  of  Multi-Cylinders. — In  a four-cylinder  en- 
gine there  is  a slight  break  in  the  effective  power  at  the 
end  of  each  power  stroke  of  the  pistons  because  each 
one  must  come  to  a full  stop  at  the  ends,  or  dead  cen- 
ters., of  its  stroke  before  it  can  reverse  its  direction. 


HOW  THE  ENGINE  WORKS 


65 


To  lap  over  these  breaks  and  make  the  turning  power 
continuous  six  cylinders  are  often  used.  An  eight- 
cylinder  engine  gives  four  power  strokes  to  each  revo- 


Fig.  28. — Diagram  of  a.  multi-cylinder  engine  showing  how  the 
pistons  are  connected  to  the  crank  shaft  (firing  order 
of  the  cylinders  is  1,  2,  4,  3). 


lution  of  the  crank  shaft,  and  a twelve-cylinder  engine 
gives  six  effective  strokes. 

How  the  Valves  Are  Worked. — To  make  the  inlet 
and  the  exhaust  valves  open  and  close  at  the  right  in- 


66  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


stant  timing  gears  are  used  as  shown  in  Eig.  29.  The 
small  gear  is  keyed  to  the  end  of  the  crank  shaft,  and 
the  other  gear,  which  has  twice  the  number  of  teeth  on 
it  as  the  small  driving  gear,  is  keyed  to  the  end  of  the 
cam  shaft. 

Two  cams  are  mounted  on  the  cam  shaft  for  each 
pair  of  valves,  since  there  is  an  inlet  and  an  exhaust 


INTAKE  STROKE 
EXHAUST  VALVE  CLOSED 
IN  TAKE  VAL  YE  OPEN \ 
COMPRESSION  STROKE 
INTAKE  VALVE  CLOSE 
£XHAUSTValved 


exhaust  valve  closed 
intake  VALVE  closed 

'EXPLOSION  STROKE 

intake  valve  closed 

EXHAUST  VALVE  OPEN 
.EXHAUST  STROKE 


VALVE  STEM 


CRANK  SHAFT ■ 

CAM  5HAFT 
CONNECTING-  ROD 


PUSH  ROD 

■LARGE  TIME 
GEAR 


SMALL  TIME 
~~  GEAR 

EXHAUST  CRANK  SHAFT 


Fig.  29. — Timing  gears,  cam  shaft  and  valves  of  a Ford  engine. 


valve  in  each  cylinder.  The  various  positions  of  these 
cams  as  they  turn  with  the  cam  shaft  are  shown  in  the 
diagram  Eig.  30,  during  the  four  strokes  of  the  piston. 
The  cams  working  the  inlet  and  exhaust  valves  are 
shown  as  mounted  on  separate  cam  shafts  in  order  not 
to  confuse,  but  they  are  more  often  all  mounted  on  the 
same  cam  shaft. 

Timing  the  Valves. — To  make  the  engine  efficient 
it  stands  to  reason  that  the  inlet  and  the  exhaust  valves 
must  open  and  close  at  precisely  the  right  moment.  But 


HOW  THE  ENGINE  WORKS 


67 


the  right  moment  does  not  mean  that  the  valves  must 
open  and  close  when  the  piston  is  at  the  exact  end  of 
its  stroke,  or  on  its  dead  center  as  it  is  called,  but  on 
the  contrary,  they  must  open  and  close  a little  before 
and  a little  after  the  end  of  the  strokes  and  this  is  called 
the  lead  and  the  lag  of  the  valves. 

Thus  in  order  that  the  burnt  gases  can  be  pushed 
out  with  the  least  resistance  possible  by  the  piston  on 


Y 


<y  </) 

§ y 


*y  i Q 

3;  c>  *y  >o 


kj<0 


I 

Si 

<o 

<v 


VALVE 

HEAD 


PUSH  ROD 
' — 'OR  JAPPE7 


C?Q  UG- 


CAM 


riG.  30. — Diagram  of  how  the  cams  work  the  valves  (firing  order 
is  1,  2,  4,  3). 


its  exhaust  stroke,  the  exhaust  valve  must  lead  a little 
before  the  power  stroke  is  finished.  Again  the  exhaust 
valve  when  it  is  open  must  lag  after  the  piston  begins 
to  move  down  on  its  suction  stroke  so  that  every  particle 
of  the  burnt  gases  can  be  scavenged  and  got  out  of  the 
cylinder.  The  exhaust  valve  then  closes  and  the  inlet 
valve  opens  and  draws  in  the  fuel  mixture. 

In  turn  the  inlet  valve  must  lead,  that  is,  remain 
open,  while  the  piston  is  making,  say,  the  third  of  its 
compression  stroke  in  order  that  a larger  quantity  of 
the  fuel  mixture  may  flow  into  the  cylinder. 


68  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


The  Exhaust  Gases. — In  the  same  way  and  for  the 
same  reason  that  a gun  makes  a report  when  it  is  dis- 
charged the  exhaust  of  an  engine  makes  a loud  noise; 
in  either  case  it  is  because  the  burnt  gases  are  driven 
out  at  high  pressure  into  the  lower  pressure  of  the  air. 

To  do  away  with  this  noise  a muffler  is  used,  that  is, 
the  exhaust  gases  from  the  cylinder  of  the  engine  are 


made  to  flow  through  the  exhaust  pipe  into  a series  of 
tubes,  or  around  a spiral,  before  they  reach  the  air,  and 
by  this  means  the  gases  are  reduced  to  the  pressure  of 
the  air,  when  they  are  then  discharged  into  it. 

How  an  Engine  Is  Built. — The  Cylinders. — The 
cylinders  of  gasoline  engines  are  made  of  cast  iron.  It 
is  the  usual  practice  to  cast  four  cylinders  en  bloc , that 
is,  all  in  one  piece,  as  shown  in  Fig.  31,  while  six- 
cylinder  engines  are  generally  cast  in  threes  as  well 
as  in  blocks. 


HOW  THE  ENGINE  WORKS 


69 


Where  the  valves  are  all  set  in  the  head  of  the  en- 
gine it  is  said  to  he  of  the  I type ; where  they  are  all 
set  on  one  side  of  the  engine  it  is  termed  an  L type, 
and  where  the  inlet  valves  are  on  one  side  and  the 
exhaust  valves  on  the  other  it  is  known  as  the  T type. 
The  water  jacket  is  usually  cast  around  the  cylinders, 
though  it  is  sometimes  cast  separately.  In  Eig.  32,  A 
SPARKPLUG 


Fig.  32. — A.  Water  jacket  cast  integral  with  cylinders. 

shows  how  the  water  jacket  is  cast  on  a four-cylinder 
engine  in  one  piece. 

The  Pistons. — Since  a piston  rod  with  its  cross  head 
guide  block  is  not  used  in  the  gasoline  engine  as  it  is 
in  the  steam  engine,  the  piston  must  be  made  much 
longer  so  that  it  will  slide  true  and  even ; as  a rule  its 
length  is  a little  larger  than  the  diameter  of  the  cylin- 
der. Near  the  closed  end  of  the  piston  three  or  more 
grooves  are  cut  on  the  outside  wall  or  surface  of  it. 

Piston  rings  are  also  made  of  cast  iron  and  cut 
through  when  they  are  slipped  over  the  piston  into  the 


70  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


grooves  as  shown  at  B.  A pair  of  projections,  or  bosses, 
are  cast  on  the  inside  of  the  piston  and  a hole  is  bored 
through  them  transversely  for  the  wrist  or  piston  pin ; 
on  the  latter  one  end  of  the  connecting  rod  is  fitted. 


GROOVES  OR 
SEATS  FOR 
P/5T0N  RING5 


WP/5T  PIN 

GOES  HERE 

l 


CONNECT /NS  ROD 
GOES  /NS/DE 


P/  5 TON  OR 
WR/ST  P/N 


CONNECT/NG 

ROD 


SH/P7 


wr/st  p/n 

BENR/NG 

CONNECT 
/NG  ROD 
BENR/NG 


SHIMS 
GO  HERE 


Fig.  32. — B.  Piston,  piston  ring  and  wrist  pin.  C.  Connecting  rod 
and  shim. 


The  Connecting  Rod. — This  is  the  rod  that  connects 
the  piston  to  the  crank  shaft;  it  is  generally  made  of 
pressed  steel  having  an  I cross-section  to  make  it  strong 
and  at  the  same  time  light.  A hole  is  bored  through 
the  top  end  for  the  wrist  pin  while  the  bottom  end  has 


HOW  THE  ENGINE  WORKS 


71 


a babbitted  bearing  for  the  crank-pin ; it  is  shown  at  C. 

The  Crank  Shaft. — The  crank  shaft  in  all  good  en- 
gines is  made  of  a single  piece  of  drop-forged  vanadium 
heat-treated  steel.  In  both  the  four-  and  six-cylinder 
engines  there  is  a bearing  between  the  cranks  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  shaft,  as  shown  at  D,  to  relieve  the  twisting 
stress  to  which  it  is  subjected. 


CONNECTING  ROD 


CONNE  C TJNG-RGD 


/JOURNAL 


JOURNAL  CfxG£/?OD  JOURN^^CONNEC  T/NG  ROD 


Pig.  32. — D.  A four-cylinder  crank  shaft.  E.  A four-cylinder  cam 

shaft. 

This  shaft  is  mounted  in  large  babbitted  bearings.  A 
driving  cam  gear  is  slipped  over  and  keyed  on  the  for- 
ward end  of  the  crank  shaft  while  the  extreme  end  is 
slotted  to  engage  a hand  crank  for  cranking  the  engine. 
The  rear  end  of  the  crank  shaft  carries  the  flywheel. 

The  Cam  Shaft. — This  is  simply  a straight  steel  shaft 
with  a timing  gear  on  one  end  which  meshes  with  the 
timing  gear  on  the  crank  shaft,  and  on  which  the  cams 
are  set  as  shown  at  E.  In  some  cam  shafts  the  cams 
and  the  shaft  are  made  of  one  piece  and  in  others  the 
cams  are  keyed  on  to  the  shaft. 

The  Inlet  and  Exhaust  Valves. — The  valve  heads  are 


72  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


made  with  beveled  edges  and  fit  into  holes  called  seats 
in  the  inlet  and  exhaust  ports  of  the  cylinder. 

The  valve  heads  should  be  made  of  tungsten  steel  to 
prevent  the  gases  from  warping  and  pitting  them.  Each 
head  has  a pop  cast  on  it  to  enable  the  valve  to  be  ground. 
The  valve  head  is  fixed  to  the  end  of  a valve  stem  as 


.SPARKPLUG 
. YALVE  HEAD 

VALVE  STEM 


VALVE  UP 


VALVE 

sown 


TAPPET 
ADJUSTING 
SCREW 

TAPPET 
CHECK  NUT 


POP 


VALVE  NEAP 
VALVE  STEM 

GUIDE 
BOTTOM 
OP  VALVE 
CHAMBER 
VALVE 
SPRING 

CAP 


TAPPET 


Fig.  32. — F.  A poppet  valve.  G.  How  the  poppet  valves  are  set. 


shown  at  F and  this  slides  through  a valve  guide  as 
shown  at  G. 

To  make  the  valve  close  quickly  after  it  is  released 
by  the  cam,  a spring  is  slipped  over  the  stem  and  rests 
on  a cap  on  the  lower  end  of  the  stem  while  the  upper 
end  of  the  spring  rests  on  the  lower  side  of  the  valve 
chamber.  The  valve  stem  sets  on  a tappet  or  push  rod, 
and  this  rests  on  the  cam. 

The  Manifolds. — These  are  the  branched  pipes  that 
carry  the  fuel  mixture  into,  and  the  burnt  gases  out  of 
the  cylinders.  The  inlet  manifold  connects  the  car- 
buretor with  the  inlet  ports  of  the  cylinders  and  the 


HOW  THE  ENGINE  WORKS 


73 


exhaust  manifold  connects  the  exhaust  ports  of  the  cyl- 
inders which  end  in  the  muffler. 

The  manifolds  are  joined  to  the  cylinders  by  putting 
a gasket , that  is,  a washer  made  of  asbestos  or  compo- 
sition packing,  between  the  ends  of  the  pipes  and  the 
ports  when  they  are  bolted  together  to  make  gas-tight 
joints. 

The  Muffler. — There  are  many  kinds  of  mufflers,  but 
as  simple  a one  as  any  is  formed  of  three  or  more  tubes 


EXHNU5T 


?v 


C 


CONNECTS  TO  EX HNU5T 
■\N//!N/FOLD  OF 


3*1  \\/  ENGINE 


Fig.  32. — H.  One  kind  of  a muffler. 


placed  inside  of  each  other  as  shown  at  H.  These 
tubes  have  holes  in  opposite  ends  so  that  the  gases  flow 
in  and  around  the  pipes  and  from  one  pipe  to  the  other 
through  the  holes  and  this  breaks  the  force  of  them  be- 
fore they  finally  exhaust  into  the  air. 

Diseases  of  the  Engine  and  How  to  Cure  Them. 

— When  the  Engine  Wont  Start. — This  may  be  due  to 
poor  compression  and  poor  compression  may  be  due  to 
(1)  leakage  of  foot  piston  caused  by  scored  cylinder 
walls.  (2)  Defective  rings.  (3)  Leakage  through  valves. 
(4)  Piston  rings  that  are  stuck  in  their  seats;  to  free  the 
rings  pour  a couple  of  tablespoonfuls  of  kerosene  into 
each  cylinder  through  the  priming  cocks,  and  let  it 
stand  overnight.  (5)  Should  the  valve  head,  or  its  seat, 
be  warped  the  remedy  is  to  grind  the  valve.  (6)  Valves 


74  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


that  are  not  properly  timed  will  also  result  in  poor 
compression.  (7)  If  the  cylinders  need  oil  there  will 
he  loss  of  compression ; put  in  a fresh  supply  of  oil  and 
crank  the  engine  by  hand  until  the  compression  is  good. 
(8)  A stuck  inlet  valve  makes  the  engine  act  as  if  it 
lacked  compression;  release  the  valve  head  and  see  if 
the  spring  is  weak  or  broken;  if  weak,  stretch  it. 

When  the  Engine  Smokes. — (1)  This  may  be  due  to 
either  worn  or  broken  piston  rings;  (2)  stuck  piston 
rings  will  also  cause  it,  in  which  case  free  it  with  kero- 
sene oil  as  above. 

When  the  Explosions  are  Regular  hut  Weak. — This 
may  be  caused  by  either  (1)  loose  valves,  when  they 
should  be  reground,  or  (2)  by  weak  valve  springs,  which 
should  be  stretched,  or  (3)  by  too  small  a lift  of  the 
exhaust  valve;  fix  this  by  having  a space  between  the 
lower  end  of  the  valve  stem  and  the  upper  end  of  the 
push  rod  when  the  valve  is  on  its  seat  and  the  push  rod 
is  in  its  lowest  position. 

When  the  Engine  Hisses. — (1)  See  that  the  priming 
cock  of  the  cylinder  is  closed  ; (2)  that  the  exhaust  pipe 
is  connected  tight  to  the  manifold;  if  not  tighten  the 
bolts  or  put  in  a new  gasket ; (3)  that  the  inlet  manifold 
does  not  leak;  (4)  scored  cylinder  walls,  that  is,  a cyl- 
inder which  is  scratched  by  a broken  piston  ring,  or 
running  the  engine  without  oil,  in  which  case  the  cylin- 
der must  be  reground  or  a new  one  put  in. 

When  the  Action  of  the  Engine  Is  Irregular. — (1)  A 
leaky  manifold  may  account  for  it,  also  (2)  either  worn 
or  broken  piston  rings. 

When  the  Engine  Misfires. — A valve  may  be  stuck. 


HOW  THE  ENGINE  WORKS 


75 


When  the  Engine  Overheats. — May  be  caused  by  (1) 
the  engine  racing  or  being  run  too  long  on  low 
gear;  (2)  oy  the  valves  not  being  timed  right;  (3) 
the  exhaust  pipes  stopped  up ; (4)  the  exhaust  valves  do 
not  raise  high  enough  and  (5)  a choked  muffler,  when 
the  soot  should  be  cleaned  from  it. 

When  the  Engine  Enochs. — This  results  from  (1) 
carbon  deposits  caused  by  premature  ignition ; clean  out 
the  carbon  from  the  cylinder  and  clean  the  piston  rings; 

(2)  loose  or  worn  bearings;  tighten  and  renew  them; 

(3)  a loose  flywheel  and  (4)  a loose  cylinder  or  crank 
case,  both  of  which  should,  of  course,  be  tightened 
up. 

When  Explosions  Occur  in  the  Muffler. — Sometimes 
this  is  caused  by  (1)  an  exhaust  valve  leaking,  (2)  the 
muffler  being  clogged  up,  or  (3)  by  good  gas  getting 
into  the  muffler  and  fired  by  the  next  discharge. 

How  to  Calculate  the  Horse  Power  of  Your 
Engine. — To  find  how  many  horse  power  your  engine 
develops  use  this  formula: 

D2XH 

H.  P.  = 

2.5 

Where  H.  P.  is  the  horse  power  wanted ; 

D2  is  the  bore  or  diameter  of  the  cylinder  squared, 

N is  the  number  of  cylinders  and  2.5  is  the  coeffi- 
cient. For  example,  suppose  the  bore  of  each  cylinder 
of  your  engine  is  3%  inches  and  there  are  six  cylin- 
ders, then 


76  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


3.75  X 3.75  X 6 

H.  P.  = 

2.5 

84.4 

H.  P.  = = 33.8  or 

2.5 

H.  P.  = 33.8 


Note. — The  coefficient  2.5  has  been  determined  by  experi- 
ment and  calculation  to  be  accurate  for  the  average  engine 
having  a piston  speed  of  1,000  feet  per  minute. 

The  Latest  Word  in  Engines. — Out  of  159 

makes  of  passenger  cars  the  engines  in  61  of  them  have 
four  cylinders;  1 has  five  cylinders;  74  have  six  cylin- 
ders; 18  have  eight  cylinders,  and  5 makes  have  twelve 
cylinders. 

Whatever  the  number  of  cylinders,  the  valves  of  all 
these  engines  operate  on  the  principle  of  the  four-cylin- 
der engine,  except  the  Knight,  which  will  be  described 
presently.  The  advantage  of  increasing  the  number  of 
cylinders  is  that  they  can  be  made  smaller  and  hence  the 
speed  greater,  which  gives  increased  power;  this  means 
greater  road  ability,  that  is,  the  engine  can  be  acceler- 
ated in  a shorter  time  and  can  negotiate  the  steepest 
hills  and  will  not  balk  on  sandy  roads.  Multi-cylinders 
also  tend  to  mitigate  vibration  and  besides  they  are 
accounted  very  economical. 

The  only  five-cylinder  engine  that  I know  of  is  the 
Eagle-Maccomber  and  in  which  the  cylinders  are  cast 


HOW  THE  ENGINE  WORKS 


77 


singly.  The  cylinders  of  the  sixes  are  usually  cast  in 
pairs  and  engines  of  this  type  are  very  popular  as  the 
above  figures  show.  Eight-  and  twelve-cylinder  engines 
are  something  of  an  innovation.  The  eights  are  often 
cast  en  bloc;  all  are  of  the  V type,  that  is,  4 cylinders 
on  each  side  form  an  angle  like  the  letter  V. 


CYLINDER 
VYATERJACKi 
P/S  TO /V 
wpjstp/h 
O/l  goes 
where 


CONNECTING. 
POD 


CRANASHA 
OIL  C( 


PARHG-AP 

VALVE 

JNLET 
HAH/FOLD 
VA LYE  STEM 
VALVE  5PR/N& 

VALVE 
TAPPET 

CAM 
SHAFT 

FEY  WHEEL 

OILSUMP 


SEDIMENT. 
BASIN 

Fig.  33. — Cross  section  of  a gasoline  engine. 


Some  of  the  best  cars  like  the  Peerless,  Haynes,  Hal 
(Lozier)  are  engined  with  twin  sixes  as  the  twelves  are 
called. 

In  the  Knight  engine  the  inlet  and  exhaust  ports  are 
opened  and  closed  by  sleeve  valves  that  slide  up  and 
down  between  the  piston  and  the  cylinder  wail  and 
this  does  away  with  the  poppet  valves  and  cams  that 
work  them. 


CHAPTER  V 


HOW  THE  GASOLINE  SYSTEM  WORKS 

Knowing  now  how  the  engine  is  made  and  works  in- 
so-far  as  its  mechanical  construction  is  concerned,  the 
next  thing  to  find  out  is  how  the  gasoline  is  taken  from 
the  tank,  how  it  is  converted  into  the  fuel  mixture 
and  how  it  is  drawn  into  the  cylinders. 

What  the  Fuel  System  Is. — The  gasoline  system, 
or  fuel  system  as  it  is  more  properly  called,  is  formed 
of  two  chief  parts  and  these  are  (1)  the  tank  on  the  car 
in  which  the  gasoline  is  carried  and  (2)  the  carburetor 
which  mixes  the  gasoline  with  the  right  proportion  of 
air  and  changes  it  into  an  explosive  gas  called  the  fuel 
mixture. 

The  Simplest  Form  of  Carburetor. — To  begin 
with,  let’s  take  it  for  granted  that  there  is  a supply  of 
gasoline  in  the  tank  and  that  it  will  flow  freely  into  the 
carburetor,  and  let’s  go  into  the  matter  of  the  carburetor 
first,  because  when  you  understand  how  this  miniature 
gas  plant  makes  the  explosive  mixture  everything  else 
about  the  fuel  system  will  be  as  clear  as  crystal. 

To  leam  all  about  how  a carburetor  is  made  and 
how  it  works  I will  build  up  one  for  you  in  words  and 
with  pictures  step  by  step  so  that  you  will  be  easily 
able  to  visualize  it. 

First,  suppose  you  have  a tank  of  gasoline  and  a pipe 

78 


HOW  THE  GASOLINE  SYSTEM  WORKS  79 


joined  to  it  which  ends  in  a nozzle  with  a very  small 
opening  as  shown  at  A in  Eig.  34;  then  of  course  the 
weight  of  the  gasoline  in  the  tank  will  make  it  squirt 


TANK 


Y-NOZZLM 


Fig.  34. — A.  How  the  nozzle  forms  a jet. 


from  the  nozzle  in  a stream  upward  and  when  the  jet 
finally  breaks  the  gasoline  will  fall  back  again. 

To  make  a spray  of  the  gasoline  a stream  of  air  must 


Fig.  34. — B.  How  a spray  of  gasoline  is  made. 

be  mixed  with  it  and  the  way  to  do  this  is  to  enclose 
the  nozzle  in  a larger  tube  which  has  a constriction  in 
it  at  the  jet  as  shown  at  B to  give  the  air  a higher 
pressure;  this  kind  of  a tube  is  called  a Venturi  tube. 


80  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


Now  while  the  gasoline  will  flow  through  the  nozzle  as 
before  it  will  not  form  a spray  until  the  air  is  sucked  in 
through  the  air  inlet  tube  and  when  this  is  done  it  will 
mix  with  the  gasoline  and  the  high  pressure  will  break 
the  latter  up  into  very  fine  particles. 


Fig.  34. — C.  Diagram  showing  how  a carburetor  works. 


An  experimental  way  to  suck  the  air  through  the 
tube  is  to  pull  back  a piston  in  a cylinder  which  is  con- 
nected to  the  mixing  chamber  as  shown  at  B.  Another 
way  is  to  connect  the  mixing  chamber  to  the  inlet  port 
of  the  cylinder  of  the  engine  and  then  when  the  piston 
makes  its  suction  stroke  it  will  draw  the  fuel  mixture 
into  the  cylinder. 

How  the  Carburetor  Is  Made  and  Works. — But 

there  is  a great  deal  more  to  a carburetor  than  merely 
a device  which  will  mix  the  air  with  the  gasoline  in  a 
spray,  for  the  amount  of  gasoline  that  flows  through 


HOW  THE  GASOLINE  SYSTEM  WORKS  81 


the  nozzle  and  the  quantity  of  air  that  is  mixed  with 
it  must  be  very  accurately  gauged  and  regulated  and, 
moreover,  all  of  this  should  be  done  automatically. 

To  accomplish  this  successfully  the  float  valve  was  in- 
vented; this  arrangement  is  pictured  in  a very  simple 
form  at  C and  a glance  at  the  sketch  will  show  that 
it  consists  of  (1)  a float  chamber  connected  in  between 
the  gasoline  tank  and  the  nozzle;  (2)  a cork,  or  a hollow 
metal  float  and  (3)  a needle  valve.  The  end  of  the 
supply  pipe  that  opens  into  the  float  chamber  contains 
the  needle  valve  which  is  opened  and  closed  by  the  float 
according  to  the  amount  of  gasoline  there  is  in  the  cham- 
ber. 

It  must  be  plain  now  that  when  the  gasoline  in  the 
float  chamber  has  reached  a certain  level  it  will  raise 
and  close  the  valve,  and  that  as  the  engine  sucks  in 
the  fuel  mixture  the  float  in  the  float  chamber  will  fall 
and  so  open  the  needle  valve  and  allow  more  gasoline 
to  flow  into  the  float  chamber  again. 

In  this  way  a constant  supply  of  gasoline  is  furnished 
to  the  nozzle  automatically,  the  exact  amount  depend- 
ing entirely  on  the  requirements  of  the  engine. 

The  Construction  and  Operation  of  a Real  Car- 
buretor.— A carburetor  that  is  built  for  actual  use  is 
made  and  works  on  precisely  the  same  principle  as  the 
simple  one  I have  just  described,  but  there  are  a few 
more  detailed  points  to  it. 

For  instance  there  is  an  auxiliary  air  valve  opening 
into  the  mixing  chamber  as  shown  at  A in  Fig.  35 ; the 
purpose  of  this  extra  valve,  which  is  kept  closed  by  the 
spring  and  when  more  air  is  needed  is  opened  by  the 


82  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


outside  pressure  of  the  air,  is  to  allow  more  air  to  be 
mixed  with  the  spray  in  the  mixing  chamber  than  can 


Fig.  35. — A.  The  auxiliary  air  inlet  of  a carburetor. 


get  through  the  main  air  inlet  and  this  permits  a rich 
or  a lean  mixture  to  be  had.  A rich  mixture,  be  it 


GASOLINE  TANK  \ 


TO  INTAKE 
MANIFOLD  OF 
ENGINE 

SPRING 
YALVE 
AUXILLARY 
AIR  YALVE  — -E 


CHECK 

YALVE 


8=ft GASOLINE 
SUPPLY  VA LYE 


NEEDLE  VALYE 

PR/NHNGP/N 


DRAIN  YALVE 

MA/N  AIR  INLET  DR,P  TUBE 

Fig.  35. — B.  The  carburetor  complete  in  cross  section. 


HOW  THE  GASOLINE  SYSTEM  WORKS  83 


known,  is  one  in  which  there  is  very  little  air  and  a 
lean  mixture  is  one  in  which  there  is  very  little  gaso- 
line. A cross  section  of  a complete  carburetor  given  at 
B and  C shows  how  it  is  connected  to  the  cylinder  of 
an  engine. 

In  commercial  types  of  carburetors  the  needle  valve 


Fig.  35. — C.  How  the  carburetor  is  coupled  to  the  engine. 

is  often  placed  under  the  float  and  as  the  float  rises  and 
falls  it  lifts  and  lowers  a weighted  lever  which  is  at- 
tached to  the  needle  valve;  again  in  others  the  spray 
nozzle  is  fixed  in  the  center  of  the  float  chamber  and 
passes  through  a hole  in  the  float;  it  works  the  needle 
valve  which  is  placed  outside  of  it  by  means  of  a couple 
of  levers  as  shown  in  the  cross-section  view  of  the 
Stromberg  carburetor  at  A in  Fig.  36  and  the  same 
carburetor  is  shown  complete  at  B. 


84  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


Fig.  36. — A.  Cross  section  view  of  a Stromberg  carburetor. 

A rich  mixture  is  needed  to  start  the  engine  easily 
and  so  each  carburetor  has  a 'priming  pin  fixed  to  the 
float  so  that  the  latter  can  be  pressed  down  and  the 


8 

Fig.  36. — B.  A Stromberg  carburetor  complete. 


HOW  THE  GASOLINE  SYSTEM  WORKS  85 


needle  valve  opened,  see  B in  Fig.  35,  which,  floods  the 
carburetor,  that  is,  a stream  of  gasoline  will  spurt  from 
the  nozzle  into  the  mixing  chamber. 

In  the  older  kinds  of  carburetors  the  check  valve 
in  the  main  air  inlet  was  fixed  and  this  made  priming 
necessary,  hut  in  recent  models  the  check  valve  can  be 
closed  by  a button  on  the  dash  and  as  this  shuts  off  the 
air  a rich  mixture  is  had. 


hand  throttle 
LEVER 


.QUADRANT 


ROD  THROUGH 
STEERING  POST 


FOOT 
ACCELERATOR 
CONTROL 


LEVER 

SLIDING  RING 


ACCELERATOR  RO. 


S THROTTLE  ON 
* CARBURETOR 


Fig.  37. — Throttle  lever  and  accelerator  controls  of  carburetor. 


A drip  tube  opens  from  the  main  air  inlet  to  let  out 
any  gasoline  that  may  happen  to  overflow  from  the 
nozzle  and  a drain  cock  is  provided  at  the  bottom 
of  the  float  chamber  to  drain  off  the  gasoline  when  you 
want  to. 

When  the  carburetor  is  installed  on  the  engine  the 
throttle  valve  in  the  head  of  the  mixing  chamber  is 
connected  to  a throttle  lever  on  the  steering  post,  or  to 
an  accelerator  pedal,  or,  better,  to  both,  and  the  way 
this  is  done  is  shown  in  Fig.  37. 


86  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


About  Air  and  Gasoline  Heaters. — To  get  the 

best  results  all  of  the  gasoline  that  passes  through  the 
carburetor  must  be  completely  vaporized  and  the  way 
to  do  it  is  to  pre-heat  the  gasoline,  or  the  air,  or  both, 
in  the  carburetor. 

In  some  carburetors  a jacket  is  built  around  the  float 
chamber  or  the  mixing  chamber  and  this  is  connected 
with  the  water  system  so  that  the  water  heated  by  the 
engine  will  flow  around  it,  or  else  it  is  connected  to  a 
pipe  around  the  exhaust  manifold  when  the  air  will  cir- 
culate through  it  and  so  becomes  hot. 

A separate  attachment,  called  an  air  heater,  can  be 
bought  and  fitted  to  any  carburetor.  This  heater  is 
formed  of  a tube,  or  housing,  around  the  exhaust  pipe 
and  a smaller  flexible  tube  carries  the  air  so  heated  to 
both  the  primary  and  the  auxiliary  air  intakes  of  the 
carburetor.  The  heated  air  passes  through  the  spray 
nozzle  and  mixing  chamber  and  this  more  completely 
vaporizes  the  gasoline,  which,  of  course,  produces  a more 
explosive  mixture. 

Kinds  of  Fuel  Feed  Systems. — The  Gravity 
Feed  System. — In  this  system  the  tank  is  placed  above 
the  level  of  the  carburetor,  usually  under  the  front  seat, 
and  the  gasoline  simply  flows  down  through  a pipe 
into  it  by  the  gravitational  pull  of  the  earth  upon  it. 
It  is  shown  in  the  preceding  pictures,  Figs.  34,  35 
and  36. 

The  Air  Pressure  Feed  System. — In  this  system  the 
gasoline  tank  is  placed  on  or  below  the  level  of  the 
carburetor  at  the  rear  end  of  the  car.  To  make  the 
gasoline  flow  into  the  carburetor  a small  air  compressor. 


HOW  THE  GASOLINE  SYSTEM  WORKS  87 


or  pump,  is  used  to  pump  air  into  tlie  tank,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  38. 

When  the  gasoline  is  under  a pressure  of  from  one 
to  four  pounds  it  will  force  the  gasoline  up  through 
the  pipe  and  into  the  carburetor.  Two  pumps  are  used 
on  most  cars  equipped  with  this  system,  and  these  are 
(1)  a hand  pressure  pump  to  be  used  when  the  engine 
is  stopped  and  there  is  no  pressure  showing  on  the  gaso- 


line gauge,  and  (2)  a power  pressure  pump  which  sup- 
plies a constant  pressure  when  the  engine  is  running. 

The  Vacuum  Feed  System. — In  this  system  the  gaso- 
line supply  tank  is  placed  on  the  rear  end  of  the  car 
below  the  level  of  the  carburetor  as  in  the  pressure 
system,  but  instead  of  the  gasoline  being  forced  under 
the  pressure  of  the  air,  it  is  sucked  from  the  supply 
tank  into  a small  fuel  tank  which  is  placed  on  the  dash 
or  fixed  to  the  engine  by  the  vacuum  set  up  in  the  latter 
tank  by  the  suction  stroke  of  the  pistons. 

That  is,  the  small  fuel  tank  is  connected  to  the  inlet 
manifold  of  the  engine  and  then  by  means  of  valves  and 


88  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


a float  operating  very  much  like  those  in  a carburetor 
the  suction  pulls  the  air  out  of  the  small  vacuum  tank, 
when  of  course  the  ordinary  atmosphere  pressure  on 
the  gasoline  in  the  supply  tank  forces  it  into  the  small 
tank. 

When  the  small  tank  is  full  enough  the  float  closes 
the  suction  valve  and  the  main  supply  is  cut  off.  A 


pipe  connects  the  bottom  of  the  small  tank  to  the  car- 
buretor, and  the  latter  is  supplied  with  gasoline  by 
gravity  feed,  all  of  which  is  shown  in  Eig.  39. 

What  Carburetion  Means. — It  is  not  only  neces- 
sary to  have  the  correct  proportions  of  gasoline  and  air 
which  form  the  fuel  mixture  for  the  different  speeds 
at  which  the  engine  runs,  but  the  complete  vaporization 
of  the  gasoline  is  of  even  greater  importance,  and  the 
different  qualities  of  gasoline  now  sold  make  this  a 
hard  thing  to  do. 

In  the  early  days  of  the  gasoline  engine  motor  car 


HOW  THE  GASOLINE  SYSTEM  WORKS  89 


the  same  mixture  of  air  and  gasoline  was  used  for  all 
speeds,  but  experiments  have  shown  that  the  greatest 
economy  is  had  when  the  mixture  is  varied  according 
to  the  speed. 

A rich  mixture  gives  the  best  results  when  the  car 
is  running  on  the  low  speed  gears  or  when  it  is  hauling 
heavy  loads;  the  reason  for  this  is  that  the  mixture 
burns  much  slower,  the  compression  is  poorer  and  there 
is  a large  loss  of  heat  by  the  cylinders. 

A lean  mixture  should  be  used  at  high  speeds  and 
when  the  load  is  light  because  the  combustion  of  the 
mixture  is  then  very  rapid,  the  compression  is  better 
and  there  are  small  heat  losses  in  the  cylinders. 

If  heat  is  applied  to  the  gasoline,  or  the  air,  or  to 
both,  before  they  pass  into  the  mixing  chamber  the  spray 
is  vaporized,  that  is,  it  takes  on  the  form  of  a gas,  when 
it  becomes  at  once  a more  efficient  explosive  mixture 
and  hence  is  far  more  economical.  Further  the  fuel 
mixture  must  be  heated  to  the  right  temperature  to  give 
the  best  results,  for  on  this  critical  temperature  de- 
pends to  a very  large  extent  the  smooth  running  of  the 
engine. 

About  Buying  Gasoline.— Crude  petroleum  is  an 
oily  liquid  obtained  from  the  earth  and  when  it  is 
heated  it  gives  off  various  products  in  the  form  of  va- 
por, such  as  kerosene,  naphtha,  benzine  and  gasoline. 
Gasoline  can  also  be  made  from  natural  gas. 

There  are  three  kinds  of  gasoline  and  these  are  (1) 
straight  refinery  gasoline;  (2)  blended  casinghead 
gasoline  and  (3)  cracked,  or  synthetic  gasoline. 
Straight  gasoline  is  made  by  distilling  crude  petroleum 


90  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


and  when  its  specific  gravity  1 reaches  a certain  mark  the 
heat  is  cut  off.  This  kind  of  gasoline  is  quite  free  from 
harmful  hydrocarbons  and  is  the  very  best  for  motor 
car  engines. 

Blended  casinghead  gasoline  is  made  from  wet  natu- 
ral gas  by  processes  of  compression  and  absorption;  it 
is  then  blended,  that  is,  mixed,  with  a heavy  naphtha, 
and  it  is  hard  for  the  ordinary  observer  to  tell  the  prod- 
uct so  obtained  from  straight  gasoline.  Cracked,  or 
synthetic  gasoline  as  it  is  called,  is  made  of  blends  of 
straight  refinery  with  natural  gas  gasoline  and  this 
usually  contains  harmful  compounds.  This  kind  of 
gasoline  is  sold  in  enormous  quantities. 

The  chief  way  to  test  gasoline  is  by  its  specific  grav- 
ity, and  this  can  bo  found  by  using  a hydrometer  having 
a Baume  scale.  The  highest  grade  has  a specific  gravity 
of  70  degrees  Baume  or  over  and  this  is  generally  used 
for  aeroplane  engines;  the  middle  grade  should  be  used 
in  engines  built  two  or  more  years  ago,  and  this  ranges 
from  65  to  70  degrees  Baume.  The  third  grade  is 
around  60  degrees  Baume;  it  is  the  kind  now  largely 
sold  in  the  Eastern  market  and  is  all  right  for  up-to- 
date  engines.  The  specific  gravity  of  gasoline  does  not 
however  check  up  accurately  with  its  volatility  and 
there  you  are. 

To  be  on  the  safe  side  buy  Standard,  Texas  or  Gulf 
gasoline. 

Troubles  with  the  Fuel  System  and  How  to 
Fix  Them. — Testing  the  Carburetor. — If  the  trouble 
is  with  your  gasoline  system  push  the  priming  pin  down 

1 For  more  about  specific  gravity  see  any  text  book  on  Physics. 


HOW  THE  GASOLINE  SYSTEM  WORKS  91 


for  a couple  of  minutes,  and  if  the  float  chamber  does 
not  flood,  that  is,  overflow,  see  if  there  is  gasoline  in  the 
tank. 

Should  there  be  plenty  of  gas  in  the  tank,  examine 
the  pipe  line,  and  if  this  is  clear  the  trouble  must  be 
in  the  carburetor  and  the  remedies  for  fixing  and  ad- 
justing it  are  as  follows: 

When  the  Engine  Wont  Start.- — This  may  be  caused 
by  (1)  a lack  of  gasoline  in  the  tank;  (2)  the  fuel  mix- 
ture not  proportioned  right ; this  can  be  fixed  by  adjust- 
ing the  air  valves  and  needle  valve  that  regulates  the 
supply  of  gasoline  so  that  the  right  amount  of  air  and 
gasoline  is  mixed;  and  (3)  water  in  the  gasoline; 
when  this  happens  run  out  all  of  the  gasoline  from  the 
tank  and  put  in  a fresh  supply,  straining  it  through  a 
chamois  skin. 

When  the  Engine  Stops. — (1)  This  is  another  indi- 
cation that  the  gasoline  tank  needs  to  be  refilled,  and 
(2)  see  that  the  carburetor  is  in  working  order. 

When  the  Engine  Knocks. — There  are  four  reasons 
for  this  as  far  as  the  carburetor  is  concerned  and  these 
are  (1)  the  fuel  mixture  is  too  rich;  adjust  the  air  and 
gasoline  valves;  (2)  the  carburetor  float  leaks  and  if  it 
is  a metal  one  solder  it;  (3)  the  cork  float  is  water- 
logged and  if  so  dry  it  out  and  give  it  a thin  coat  of 
shellac;  or  (4)  lint  or  other  foreign  matter  may  be 
under  the  float  valve. 

When  the  Explosions  are  Regular  hut  Weak. — This 
is  often  due  to  (1)  too  lean  a fuel  mixture;  either  open 
the  needle  valve  to  give  more  gasoline  or  close  up  the 
air  valves  to  give  less  air;  (2)  too  rich  a fuel  mixture 


92  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


in  which  case  close  the  needle  valve  and  open  the  air 
valves;  (3)  the  auxiliary  air  valve  may  be  out  of  ad- 
justment; clean  the  valve  and  stretch  the  spring  a little. 

When  the  Action  of  the  Engine  Is  Irregular. — This 
is  sometimes  caused  by  (1)  too  lean  a fuel  mixture  and 
(2)  too  rich  a fuel  mixture;  in  either  case  the  engine 
will  misfire;  if  so  adjust  the  needle  and  air  valves;  (3) 
water  in  the  gasoline  and  this  prevents  the  gasoline 
from  getting  through  the  spray  nozzle ; drain  the  tank 
and  refill.  A simple  test  to  find  if  there  is  water  in  the 
gasoline  is  to  drain  a little  from  the  bottom  of  the 
float  chamber  into  your  hand,  blow  on  it  to  evaporate 
the  gasoline  and  the  water  will  remain  behind  if  there 
is  any  in  it. 

When  the  Engine  Races. — This  is  caused  primarily 
by  the  throttle  valve  being  open  and  incapable  of  ad- 
justment; see  (1)  if  the  accelerator  spring  is  broken; 
or  (2)  if  any  of  the  ball  joints  in  the  controlling  levers 
have  worked  loose. 

When  There  Is  a Decrease  in  Power. — (1)  The  gaso- 
line feed  pipe  to  the  carburetor  may  be  clogged;  if  so 
unscrew  the  coupling  of  the  pipe  and  carburetor  and  see 
if  the  flow  is  good;  then  examine  the  strainer  of  the 
carburetor ; the  nozzle  may  be  choked  up  and  the  thing 
to  do  is  to  take  it  out  and  clean  it. 

When  the  Engine  Misfires. — This  is  a good  sign  that 
(1)  the  gasoline  tank  is  empty;  (2)  that  the  fuel  mix- 
ture is  too  lean;  or  (3)  that  it  is  too  rich. 

When  There  Are  Explosions  in  the  Muffler. — This  is 
often  due  to  a lean  fuel  mixture  and  the  result  is 
that  an  unexploded  charge  escapes  into  the  muffler  and 


HOW  THE  GASOLINE  SYSTEM  WORKS  93 


the  next  charge  fires  it;  give  the  mixture  more  gaso- 
lina 

Where  the  Fuel  Power  Goes. — It  is  a notorious 
fact  that  only  6 y2  per  cent  of  the  available  100  per 
cent  of  energy  in  the  gasoline  is  actually  used  by  the 
rear  wheels  in  driving  the  car  along  and  the  other  93^ 
per  cent  of  the  energy  is  wasted  in  heat  radiation,  over- 
coming friction  and  air  resistance. 

The  following  table  shows  exactly  where  and  how 
much  these  losses  are: 

Table  of  Fuel  Losses. 


Full  Fuel  Power  Power  Wasted  by  Percentage, 

of  the  Gasoline. 

100  per  cent.  Water  Cooling 35.8 

Radiation  of  Exhaust  Gas 34.6 

Exhaust  Pipes  1.0 

Heat  in  Muffler 1.2 

Friction  of  Transmission 2.9 

Friction  of  Engine 5.6 

Friction  of  Rear  Tires 3.7 

Friction  of  Front  Tires 1.1 

Friction  of  Front  Wheels .6 

Resistance  of  Air 7.1 


100%  93.6 

= 6.4%  of  available  power. 


CHAPTER  VI 


HOW  THE  IGNITION  SYSTEM  WORKS 

In  all  motor  car  gasoline  engines  an  electric  sparlc  is 
used  to  fire  the  fuel  charge  in  the  cylinder  and  make 
it  explode. 

Kinds  of  Ignition  Systems. — There  are  three 
kinds  of  electric  ignition  systems  used  to  make  the  spark 
and  these  are  (1)  the  spark  coil  with  a vibrator , (2) 
the  high  tension  magneto  and  (3)  the  spark  coil  with  a 
circuit  breaker.  Many  modifications  of  all  these  sys- 
tems have  been  made,  hut  when  you  know  the  funda- 
mental principles  you  will  easily  understand  them  all. 

The  Vibrator  Spark  Coil  System.  — The  first 
thing  you  must  have  to  make  a spark  with  this  system 
is  a battery  to  generate  a current  of  electricity.  How 
there  are  two  kinds  of  batteries  used  for  this  purpose 
and  these  are  (1)  the  dry  battery  and  (2)  the  storage 
battery. 

The  Dry  Battery. — A dry  battery  is  made  up  of  two 
or  more  dry  cells  as  shown  at  A in  Fig.  40.  Each  cell  is 
formed  of  a zinc  cup  in  which  are  placed  a carbon  plate 
and  an  active  paste ; a binding  post  is  fixed  to  the  zinc 
and  another  to  the  carbon  so  that  wires  can  be  connected 
to  them.  When  the  chemical  paste  acts  on  the  zinc  it 
sets  up  an  electric  current  having  a large  volume,  that 
is,  amperage,  but  it  is  under  a very  low  pressure,  or 

94 


HOW  THE  IGNITION  SYSTEM  WORKS  95 


voltage.  When  a dry  cell  is  new  it  should  deliver  a cur- 
rent of  from  15  to  20  amperes  at  a pressure  of  about 


Fig.  40. — A.  A dry  cell  and  a battery  of  dry  cells. 

1.5  volts.  Dry  cells  cannot  be  recharged  to  any  pur- 
pose. 

To  Test  a Dry  Cell. — Hold  the  two  terminals  of  an 
ammeter  against  the  zinc  and  the  carbon  of  the  cell  as 


Fig.  40. — B.  Testing  a dry  battery. 

shown  at  B and  the  needle  will  point  to  the  number 
of  amperes  that  is  flowing. 

The  Storage  Battery. — A storage  battery  is  made  by 
immersing  two  plates  of  prepared  lead,  or  grids  as 


96  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


they  are  called,  in  a jar  filled  with  a weak  solution  of 
sulphuric  acid,  called  the  electrolyte , as  shown  at  A in 
Pig.  41.  It  is  shown  ready  for  use  at  B. 

Now  a storage  battery  is  different  from  a dry  battery 
in  that  it  has  to  be  charged  by  a current  from  a dynamo 
before  it  can  deliver  a current,  and  this  is  the  reason  it 
is  called  a storage  battery.  A storage  battery  gives  an 


*u*ee* 


W OODt 


B 


Fig.  41. — A.  Cross  section  of  a storage  battery.  B.  Storage 
battery  complete. 


enormously  large  current  on  short  circuit,  while  each 
cell  gives  a pressure  of  about  2 volts. 

A dry  battery  is  handier  than  a storage  battery  be- 
cause you  can  buy  new  ones  cheap  when  they  are  run 
down,  whereas  a storage  battery  must  be  taken  to  a 
regular  station  to  be  recharged  unless  you  have  a dynamo 
geared  to  the  engine.  But  a storage  battery  is  better 
than  a dry  battery  because  it  delivers  a more  nearly 
constant  current  to  the  end,  while  a dry  battery  keeps 
petering  out  from  the  moment  it  is  put  to  use. 

To  Test  a Storage  Battery. — Directions  for  testing 


HOW  THE  IGNITION  SYSTEM  WORKS  97 


a storage  battery  will  be  found  in  Chapter  IX  under 
tbe  sub-caption  of  How  the  Current  is  Measured. 

The  Vibrator  Spark  Coil. — Since  both  dry  and 
storage  batteries  give  a low  voltage  current  and  a high 
voltage , or  high  tension  current  as  it  is  called,  is  needed 
to  make  a jump  spark,  a spark  coil  is  used  to  raise  the 
low  pressure  current  to  a high  tension  current.  When 
the  pressure  has  been  stepped  up  the  high  tension  cur- 
rent is  carried  to  the  spark-plug  and,  jumping  across 
the  gap,  the  spark  is  made. 

There  are  five  parts  to  a spark  coil  and  these  are  (1) 
the  soft  iron  core  on  which  there  is  wound,  but  insu- 
lated from  it,  (2)  the  primary  coil , formed  of  two  or 
three  layers  of  thick  wire,  and  on  this  is  wound,  but  also 
insulated  from  it  (3)  the  secondary  coil,  which  is 
formed  of  a large  number  of  layers  of  very  fine  wire. 

Then  there  is  (4)  an  interruptor,  or  vibrator  as  it  is 
more  often  called;  this  consists  of  a trembler  which 
makes  and  breaks  the  current  that  flows  through  the 
primary  coil  from  the  battery  several  hundred  times  a 
minute,  and,  finally,  there  is  (5)  a condenser,  which  is 
built  up  of  alternate  leaves  of  tin-foil  and  oiled  paper, 
all  of  which  is  shown  in  the  diagram  at  A in  Fig.  42 
and  as  it  really  is  at  B. 

How  the  Coil  Makes  the  Spark. — When  a current 
from  a dry,  or  a storage,  battery  flows  through  the  pri- 
mary coil  it  magnetizes  the  soft  iron  core  and  this  draws 
the  armature  on  the  vibrating  spring  to  it  and  so  breaks 
the  contact  points  apart ; this  in  turn  breaks  the  primary 
circuit  when  of  course  the  current  from  the  battery  is 
cut  off.  The  iron  core  then  loses  its  magnetism  and  lets 


98  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


go  of  the  armature  when  the  spring  flies  hack  and  closes 
the  circuit  again. 

When  a current  flows  in  the  primary  coil  another 
current  is  set  up  in  the  secondary  coil  by  what  is  called 
induction;  this  secondary  current  only  lasts  a moment 
and  when  the  vibrator  breaks  the  primary  circuit  an- 
other momentary  current  is  set  up  in  the  secondary  coil 
which  flows  in  the  opposite  direction  to  the  first  one. 


As  the  vibrator  makes  and  breaks  the  primary  circuit 
several  hundred  times  a minute  alternating  currents 
are  set  up  in  the  secondary  coil. 

Not  only  this  but  the  spark-coil  steps  up  the  pressure 
of  the  current  for  the  reason  that  the  primary  coil  has 
only  a few  turns  of  wire  on  it  and  the  secondary  coil 
has  a large  number  of  turns  on  it ; the  pressure  is  also 
raised  by  the  condenser  which  is  connected  across  the 
contact  points  of  the  vibrator.  Thus  the  pressure  of  the 
current  is  raised  until  it  can  easily  jump  across  an  air 


HOW  THE  IGNITION  SYSTEM  WORKS  99 


gap  of  34  inch,  while  the  distance  between  the  points 
of  a spark-plug  is  only  about  ■2T  of  an  inch. 

How  a Spark  Plug  Is  Made. — If  you  will  exam- 
ine a spark  plug  you  will  see  that  there  is  only  one  place 
to  connect  a wire  to  it  from  the  spark-coil  or  a magneto. 

To  save  wiring,  one  wire  of  the  spark  plug  is  fas- 
tened to  the  thread  of  the  metal  plug  body  as  shown  at 
A and  B in  Fig.  43 ; the  other  wire  runs  up  through 


Fig.  43. — A.  A spark  plug.  B.  How  a spark  plug  is  made. 


the  porcelain  bushing  to  insulate  it  from  the  plug  body 
and  on  the  end  of  this  wire  is  a thumb  nut  to  hold  on  the 
high  tension  wire. 

As  one  of  the  spark  gap  wires  is  fixed  to  the  plug 
body  and  the  latter  is  screwed  into  the  head  of  the  cylin- 
der the  metal  of  the  engine  itself  is  used  as  a return 
circuit  and,  hence,  the  other  wire  of  the  spark  coil,  or 
magneto,  can  he  connected  to  the  engine  itself,  or 
grounded  as  it  is  called. 

A Timer  for  a Single  Cylinder  Engine. — If  a 

spark  coil  in  action  should  be  connected  directly  with 
a spark  plug  of  course  a continuous  stream  of  sparks 


100  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


would  jump  across  the  gap ; if  then  you  want  to  fire  a 
charge  in  a single  cylinder  engine  you  must  connect 
in  a timer,  that  is,  a mechanical  circuit  breaker  as  shown 
in  Fig.  44,  so  that  the  spark  will  take  place  only  at  the 
end  of  the  compression  stroke. 

It  consists  of  an  interrupter  worked  by  a cam  geared 


BATTERY 


Fig.  44. — A spark  coil,  spark  plug  and  timer  for  a one-cylinder 

engine. 


to  the  crank  shaft  and  at  every  revolution  it  presses 
the  contact  on  a spring  against  a fixed  contact  and  so 
closes  the  primary  circuit  at  the  right  instant  when  a 
spark  is  made. 

A Distributor  for  a Multi-Cylinder  Engine.— 

When  an  engine  has  four  or  more  cylinders  there  is 
usually  a spark  coil  for  each  cylinder  and  these  are 
mounted  in  a box  on  the  dash;  then,  too,  there  must 


HOW  THE  IGNITION  SYSTEM  WORKS  101 


be  a separate  fixed  contact,  or  segment  on  tbe  distributor , 
as  the  timing  device  is  now  called,  for  each  spark  plug 
in  each  cylinder,  all  of  which  is  shown  in  the  wiring 
diagram  in  Fig.  45. 

When  the  arm  revolves  it  wipes  each  of  the  fixed 
segments  and  this  makes  a spark  successively  and  at 


Fig.  45. — Four  spark  coils  with  spark  plugs  and  distributor  for  a 
four-cylinder  engine. 


the  right  moment  in  each  cylinder  at  the  business  end 
of  the  spark  plug.  The  vibrator  spark  coil  system  is 
to  be  found  only  on  old  cars  or  on  those  of  cheaper 
makes,  the  magneto  and  circuit  breaker  spark  coil  sys- 
tems having  displaced  it. 

The  Magneto  Ignition  System:  The  Low  Ten- 
sion Magneto. — A magneto  is  different  from  a battery 
in  that  it  generates  an  alternating  current  and  also  in 
that  the  current  is  of  much  higher  tension. 


102  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


In  its  simplest  form  it  consists  of  a powerful  U mag- 
net as  shown  at  A in  Eig.  46,  between  the  ends,  or  poles, 
of  which  an  armature  B is  mounted  so  that  it  will  re- 
volve as  shown  in  C. 

The  armature  is  made  of  soft  iron  with  slots  cut  in 
it  lengthwise  and  these  are  wound  full  of  fine  insulated 
wire  to  form  a coil ; the  ends  of  this  coil  are  fixed  to  a 
pair  of  copper  rings  called  collectors , or  sliprings,  and 


PERMANENT 
STEEL  MAGNETS 


SLOT  WOUND 
VV/TH  VY/RE 


PULLET 
\ARMPTURE 

BE  APING 

/ SUP  RINGS 
BRUSHS 


fi 

THE  F/ELO 
T7 AG-NET 


BRUSHES 

B 

THE  ARMATURE 


CURRENTS 
TAKEN  OPT 
HERE 
THE  LOW  TENSION 
MAGNETO 


Fig.  46. — A low  tension  magneto. 


these  are  mounted  on,  but  insulated  from,  the  shaft  of 
the  armature.  A pair  of  flat  copper  springs  called 
brushes  are  made  to  press  on  these  rings  so  that  they  will 
take  off  the  currents  when  they  are  generated  by  the  ar- 
mature. 

How  the  Magneto  WorTcs. — Now  as  each  turn  of  wire 
on  the  armature  moves  past  each  pole  of  the  magnet  it 
cuts  the  magnetic  field  of  force  and  this  sets  up  alter- 
nating currents  in  the  coil ; these  currents  flow  through 
the  coil  to  the  sliprings  where  they  are  taken  off  by  the 
brushes.  This  kind  of  a magneto  is  called  a low  tension 
magneto  because  the  voltage  is  too  low  to  make  the  cur- 
rent give  a jump  sparlc. 


HOW  THE  IGNITION  SYSTEM  WORKS  103 


But  if  you  will  connect  a low  tension  magneto  to  one 
or  more  spark  coils  instead  of  the  battery  shown  in  Fig. 
45  the  spark  coils  will  set  up  jump  sparks  and  you  wll 
have  a magneto  ignition  system  very  like  the  one  used 
in  the  Ford  cars. 

The  High  Tension  Magneto. — In  order  to  step  up 
the  pressure  of  the  currents  set  up  in  a magneto  high 
enough  to  make  jump  sparks,  a second  coil  is  wound  on 
the  first  coil  of  the  armature  exactly  as  it  is  in  the  spark 
coil  previously  described. 

The  Interruptor. — A make  and  break  device  made 
like  the  timer  shown  in  Fig.  44  is  fitted  to  the  end  of 
the  magneto  and  this  is  connected  in  circuit  with  the 
primary  coil. 

A cam  on  the  end  of  the  armature  shaft  opens  and 
closes  the  contact  points  as  many  times  per  revolution 
as  there  are  cylinders  to  he  fired.  In  one  end  of  the  ar- 
mature is  a small  condenser  and  this  is  connected  across 
the  interruptor  contact  points.  The  armature  then  of 
a high  tension  magneto  is  really  a spark  coil  which  re- 
volves and  instead  of  a battery  the  primary  current  is 
produced  by  the  armature  spinning  between  the  mag- 
nets. 

In  a high  tension  magneto  one  of  the  ends  of  the  pri- 
mary coil  is  grounded  to  the  iron  core  of  the  armature 
and  the  other  end  is  fastened  to  a slipring;  thus  only 
one  brush  and  one  slipring  are  needed  as  the  circuit  is 
completed  through  the  magneto  and  the  engine  as  shown 
at  A in  Fig.  47.  The  shaft  of  the  armature  is  coupled  to 
a counter-shaft  which  is  geared  to  the  crank  shaft  of 
the  engine  and  so  turns  with  it. 


104  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


The  Distributor. — As  with  the  spark  coil  distributor 
the  one  used  with  a magneto  consists  of  a revolving 


Fiq.  47. — A.  Wiring  diagram  of  a high  tension  magneto  and 
interruptor  for  a one-cylinder  engine. 


B.  Wiring  diagram  of  a high  tension  magneto,  interruptor  and 
distributor  for  a four-cylinder  engine. 

metal  arm  and  as  many  metal  segments  fixed  around  it 
as  there  are  cylinders  to  be  fired,  with  a wire  from 
each  segment  leading  to  a spark  plug  as  shown  at  B. 


HOW  THE  IGNITION  SYSTEM  WORKS  105 


The  metal  arm  is  set  in  an  insulated  disk  and  this  is 
geared  to  the  end  of  the  armature  shaft  as  shown  in  the 
Bosch  magneto  at  C so  that  it  will  revolve  and  the  arm 
make  contact  successively  with  the  segments  of  the 
distributor  plate.  A large  number  of  cars  use  magneto 
ignition  solely. 

70  SPARK  PLUGS 

DISTRIBUTOR  D/SK 


CARBON  BRUSH 
PICKIN&  UP  CUR- 
RENT FROM  COL- 
LECTOR RING 

Fig.  47. — C.  A high  tension  magneto  showing  interrupter  and 
distributor  disk  and  plate. 

The  Circuit  Breaker  Spark  Coil  System.  — Since 
all  up-to-date  motor  cars  have  both  lighting  and  electric 
starting  systems  and  as  a storage  battery  is  needed  for 
their  operation,  makers  have  largely  gone  back  to  the 
spark  coil  ignition  system. 

In  many  of  the  medium-priced  cars  the  spark  coil 
system  is  now  the  only  one  used,  while  in  the  higher- 
priced  cars  the  dual  system  is  used,  that  is,  they  are 
equipped  with  both  the  spark  coil  and  the  magneto,  so 
that  if  anything  happens  to  one  system  the  other  is 
available. 

In  the  new  spark  coil  system,  or  distributor  system , 


106  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


as  it  is  called,  a spark  coil  is  used  as  in  the  old  one, 
but  instead  of  having  a vibrating  make  and  break 
worked  by  the  core  of  the  coil,  a mechanical  circuit 
breaker  just  like  the  interruptor  on  a high  tension  mag- 
neto is  used,  and  it  is  driven  from  a shaft  geared  to  the 
engine  in  the  same  way. 

The  Spark  Coil. — This  coil  has  an  iron  core,  a pri- 


Fig.  48. — A.  The  circuit  breaker  and  distributor  combined. 

mary  and  a secondary  coil  exactly  like  a vibrator  spark 
coil. 

The  Circuit  Breaker. — This  device  consists  of  a cam 
having  as  many  projections  on  it  as  there  are  cylinders 
to  be  fired.  This  cam,  which  is  mounted  on  a shaft, 
breaks  the  primary  circuit  every  time  a projection 
strikes  the  contact  lever  and  this  sets  up  a current  in  the 
secondary  coil.  A condenser  is  mounted  on  one  end 
of  the  coil  for  convenience  and  it  is  connected  across 
the  contact  points  of  the  circuit  breaker  as  in  the  vi- 
brator of  a spark  coil  and  the  interruptor  of  a high- 


ro  spark 

LE  VER  CONTACT  P/NS 


ROT/7T/NG- 

AJLATR 


HOW  THE  IGNITION  SYSTEM  WORKS  107 


tension  magneto.  The  circuit  breaker  and  revolving 
arm  of  the  distributor  are  shown  at  A in  Fig.  48. 

The  Distributor. — The  distributor  is  mounted  on  top 
of  the  circuit  breaker  and  its  revolving  arm  is  fixed  to 
the  same  shaft  as  the  cam  of  the  circuit  breaker,  but  it 


Pig.  48. — B.  Wiring  diagram  of  a six-cylinder  circuit  breaker 
spark  coil  system. 


is  well  insulated  from  it.  The  revolving  arm  either 
makes  contact  with  the  segments  of  the  distributor  or, 
as  in  the  Remy  system,  it  just  clears  the  pins  which  are 
used  instead  of  segments,  and  a jump  spark  completes 
the  circuit  between  them.  The  top  of  the  distributor 
plate  is  shown  at  B. 

The  high  tension  current  is  led  to  the  middle  bind- 
ing post  and  this  connects  with  the  revolving  arm 
through  a brush;  the  segments,  or  pins,  connect  with 


108  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


the  binding  posts  of  the  distributor  and  these  are  in 
turn  connected  with  the  spark-plugs  as  shown  in  the 
wiring  diagram  B and  the  pictorial  diagram  C. 


Fig.  48. — C.  Pietorial  diagram  of  a Kemy  six-cylinder  ignition 
system. 

Why  the  Spark  Must  Be  Timed  . — In  the  chapter 
on  How  the  Engine  Works  I explained  why  it  is  neces- 
sary to  time  the  valves  so  that  there  must  be  a lag  or  a 
lead  to  give  the  engine  more  power. 

In  the  same  way  it  is  necessary  to  make  the  spark 
fire  the  charge  just  before  the  end  of  the  compression 
stroke  is  reached  in  order  to  get  the  full  power  out  of 
it,  and  this  is  what  is  meant  by  advancing  the  spark. 

When  the  engine  is  cranked,  especially  if  you  do  so 
by  hand,  the  spark  must  be  retarded,  that  is,  it  must  not 
take  place  until  after  the  piston  has  reached  the  ex- 
treme top  of  its  stroke,  or  dead  center  as  it  is  called, 
for  if  the  spark  takes  place  in  advance  of  it,  it  will  ex- 
plode the  charge  and  drive  the  piston  back  before  it  has 
reached  the  top  and  this  reverses  the  direction  of  the 
crank  shaft. 


HOW  THE  IGNITION  SYSTEM  WORKS  109 


The  reason  the  spark  must  he  advanced  when  running 
is  because  it  takes  a small  fraction  of  a second  for  the 
spark  to  ignite  the  whole  charge  and  produce  the  explo- 
sion, and  again  as  less  gasoline  is  used  on  high  speeds 
it  takes  even  a longer  time  for  the  spark  to  explode  it. 

Hence  if  the  spark  is  advanced  so  that  it  fires  the 
charge  before  the  end  of  the  compression  stroke  it  will 
not  explode  until  the  stroke  is  on  the  top  dead  center, 
or  an  instant  after,  and  the  full  power  of  it  is  then  ob- 
tained. But  the  spark  should  not  be  advanced  too  far 
because  the  explosion  would  then  take  place  before  the 
compression  stroke  was  completed  and  this  would  cause 
a back  pressure  and  cause  the  engine  to  knock. 

To  the  end  that  the  spark  can  be  advanced  or  retard- 
ed according  to  the  speed  at  which  the  engine  is  running, 
a control  lever  is  connected  to  the  breaker  box  of  the 
circuit  breaker  so  that  the  latter  can  be  turned  through 
an  angle  of  about  30  degrees.  The  control  lever  is 
linked  through  jointed  rods  which  run  to  and  through 
the  steering  post  to  the  spark  lever  on  the  steering  wheel. 

Disorders  of  the  Ignition  System  and  How  to 
Treat  Them. — When  the  Engine  Wont  Start. — What- 
ever system  your  engine  is  equipped  with,  look  after 
(1)  the  battery  switch  and  see  that  it  is  on;  (2)  test 
the  dry  battery  with  an  ammeter,  or  if  it  is  a storage 
battery,  test  it  with  a voltmeter. 

(3)  See  that  the  wires  are  not  broken  and  that  the 
connections  are  clean  and  tight;  (4)  also  look  for  a 
short  circuit,  that  is,  the  insulation  may  be  worn 
through  and  two  wires  or  a wire  and  the  engine  may  be 
touching  each  other;  either  put  in  a new  wire,  or  tape 


110  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


the  old  one;  (5)  examine  the  spark  plugs  and  clean 
them  if  fouled  with  carbon,  or  replace  them  if  cracked. 

When  the  Engine  Stops. — (1)  Look  for  loose  connec- 
tions or  broken  wires;  (2)  the  vibrator  contacts  may 
be  stuck;  if  so,  release  and  file  them  off  flat  to  make 
a good  contact;  (3)  poor  contact  in  the  timer;  (4)  not 
enough  spark;  this  may  be  due  to  (a)  a weak  battery; 
(b)  magnets  demagnetized ; (c)  magneto  breaker  points 
out  of  adjustment;  (d)  vibrator  on  the  coil  out  of  ad- 
justment, and  (e)  gap  of  the  spark  plug  either  too  small 
or  too  large. 

When  the  Engine  Overheats. — This  may  be  caused 
by  (1)  the  spark  being  retarded  too  much;  push  the 
spark  lever  clear  up  unless  the  engine  begins  to  knock. 

When  the  Explosions  Are  Regular  but  Weak. — (1) 
This  may  result  from  the  vibrator  of  the  coil  being  out 
of  adjustment,  or  (2)  the  spark  plugs  working  loose. 

When  the  Action  of  the  Engine  Is  Irregular. — See  if 
(1)  the  spark  plugs  are  cracked  or  loose;  (2)  if  the  in- 
sulation on  the  wires  and  the  connections  are  good,  and 
(3)  that  the  contacts  of  the  vibrator  or  timer  are 
clean. 

When  the  Engine  Knocks. — This  sometimes  results 
from  the  spark  being  advanced  too  much,  in  which  case 
retard  it  a little. 

When  the  Engine  Misfires. — The  spark  plugs  may 
be  fouled,  so  clean  off  the  carbon. 

When  the  Engine  Hisses. — A spark  plug  may  be 

broken. 

When  Explosions  Occur  in  the  Muffler. — This  is  often 
caused  by  (1)  the  spark  being  retarded  when  it  fails  to 


HOW  THE  IGNITION  SYSTEM  WORKS  111 


fire  the  charge  in  the  cylinder,  or  (2)  not  enough  spark 
to  fire  the  charge,  and  (3)  tinier  is  out  of  adjustment; 
see  that  the  batteries  deliver  current  and  clean  the  con- 
tacts. 


CHAPTER  VII 


HOW  THE  OILING  SYSTEM  WORKS 

The  first  step  toward  making  a car  run  smoothly 
and  last  long  is  to  keep  every  working  part  of  it  prop- 
erly lubricated. 

The  last  thing  a demonstrator  will  do  is  to  show  you 
how  to  oil  the  engine,  point  out  all  the  grease  cups,  and 
unless  you  give  the  engine  its  pro-rata  of  the  right  grade 
of  oil  and  keep  the  grease  cups  all  over  the  machine 
filled  with  grease,  woe  be  unto  you  and  your  car. 

The  Parts  of  a Car  to  Be  Oiled. — The  five  chief 
parts  of  a car  to  be  lubricated  are  (1)  the  engine;  (2) 
the  clutch,  if  it  is  an  oil  immersed  one;  (3)  the  uni- 
versal joints;  (4)  the  transmission  and  (5)  the  differ- 
ential. 

Then  there  are  many  smaller  moving  parts  all  over 
the  car  that  must  be  lubricated,  but  this  is  done  through 
compression  cups , or  grease  cups  as  they  are  commonly 
called,  and  these  will  he  treated  of  further  along  in  this 
chapter. 

How  the  Engine  Is  Oiled.— Hot  only  must  the 
cylinders  of  the  engine  be  supplied  with  oil,  hut  all  of 
the  bearings  and  moving  parts  must  be  lubricated  as 
well.  As  it  is  not  a feasible  scheme  to  oil  the  engine  now 
and  then  by  hand,  some  kind  of  an  oiling  system  must 

112 


HOW  THE  OILING  SYSTEM  WORKS  113 


be  used  and  it  must  neither  supply  too  little  nor  yet 
again  too  much  oil. 

To  provide  a means  to  lubricate  these  hot  and  rapidly 
moving  parts  automatically  the  lower  part  of  the  en- 
gine is  enclosed  in  a crank  case  and  various  arrange- 
ments, called  lubricating  systems,  have  been  devised  to 
supply  each  part  with  just  the  right  amount  of  oil. 

Kinds  of  Lubricating  Systems.— Now  there  are 
two  general  types  of  lubricating  systems  and  these  are 
(1)  the  splash  system,  and  (2)  the  force  feed 
system. 

In  the  splash  system  the  oil  is  either  poured  into  the 
crank  case  through  a filler,  or  else  it  is  fed  into  it  by  an 
oil  pump  from  an  outside  reservoir.  In  this  system  the 
oil  is  splashed  by  dippers  on  the  ends  of  the  connecting 
rods  striking  it,  which  throw  it  to  all  parts  of  the 
engine. 

In  the  force  feed  system  the  oil  is  put  into  the  crank 
case  well,  or  sump  as  it  is  called,  that  is,  a reservoir 
below  the  floor  of  the  crank  case,  and  from  there  it  is 
forced  by  a pump  to  the  cylinders  and  other  parts  to  be 
oiled  and  that  portion  which  is  not  used  drops  back  again 
into  the  sump. 

Again,  these  two  general  types  of  lubricating  sys- 
tems can  be  divided  into  five  distinct  classes  and  these 
are  (1)  the  straight  splash;  (2)  splash  circulating; 
(3)  splash  and  force  feed;  (4)  force  feed  and  (5)  full 
force  feed. 

The  Straight  Splash  System. — The  oil  is  poured  into 
the  crank  case  through  a filler  until  it  reaches  the 
splash  level,  that  is,  a level  on  a line  with  the  lower 


114  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


ends  of  the  connecting  rods  when  they  are  on  the  lower 
dead  center.  A drain  cock  shows  the  proper  level. 

The  connecting  rods  have  dippers  on  their  ends  and 
as  these  strike  the  oil  it  splashes  it  onto  the  walls  of 
the  cylinders  and  on  all  of  the  bearings.  It  is  shown 


in  Fig.  49.  The  White  truck  uses  a simple  splash  sys- 
tem. 

The  Splash  Circulating  System. — This  is  also  called 
the  semi-force  feed  and  splash  system.  In  this  system 
there  is  a sump , that  is,  a reservoir  below  the  floor  of 
the  crank  case,  and  this  is  filled  to  a given  level ; splash 
troughs  are  formed  in  the  floor  of  the  crank  case  and 


HOW  THE  OILING  SYSTEM  WORKS  115 


these  are  kept  full  of  oil  by  the  centrifugal  action  of 
the  flywheel,  the  overflow  of  the  oil  running  hack  into 
the  sump  when  it  is  pumped  up  again. 

When  the  dippers  on  the  connecting  rods  strike  the 
oil  in  the  troughs  they  splash  it  all  over  the  cylinder 
walls,  fill  the  oil  cups  on  the  main  bearings  and  oil 


Fig.  50. — The  splash  circulating  system. 


all  of  the  other  bearings  as  shown  in  Pig.  50.  The 
Buick  uses  this  system. 

The  Splash  and  Force  Feed  System. — In  this  system 
the  oil  is  forced  by  the  pressure  of  a pump  directly 
onto  the  crank  shaft  bearings ; from  these  it  falls  to  the 
splash  troughs  in  the  crank  case  into  which  the  connect- 
ing rods  dip  when  the  oil  is  splashed  to  all  the  other 
parts  of  the  engine,  as  shown  in  Fig.  51. 

The  oil  is  kept  at  a constant  level  in  the  splash 
troughs  by  an  overflow  to  the  sump  and  from  this  it  is 
pumped  up  again.  The  oil  is  usually  made  to  flow 
through  a sight  feed  or  to  a pressure  gauge  so  that  you 


116  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


can  see  that  the  system  is  operating  properly.  This 
system  is  used  in  the  Reo. 

The  Force  Feed  System. — The  oil  in  this  system  is 
contained  in  the  sump  and  from  this  it  is  forced  up  by 
a pump  to  the  main  shaft  bearings  and  then  on  through 
the  crank  shaft  by  means  of  ducts , or  holes,  drilled  in 
the  crank  wets  to  the  crank  pins. 


CONNECT/* 

ROD 
CRANK  CASE - 
D/PPER 


OIL  TROUGHS 


SUMP 


SUM. 
CIRCULATING  PUMP 


B/PPEP 


Fig.  51. — The  splash  and  force  feed  system. 


The  surplus  oil  that  flows  through  to  the  crank  pins 
is  thrown  off  by  the  lower  ends  of  the  connecting  rods 
and  this  lubricates  the  cylinders,  pistons  and  wrist  pins. 
The  excess  oil  falls  into  the  sump  again  through  an 
overflow  or  hole  in  the  floor  of  the  crank  case.  Fig. 
52  shows  the  system  and  you  will  observe  that  the  con- 
necting rods  do  not  dip  into  the  oil.  You  will  find  a 
force  feed  system  on  a Stems-Knight  car. 

The  Full  Force  Feed  System. — As  in  the  force  feed 


HOW  THE  OILING  SYSTEM  WORKS  117 


system  the  oil  is  contained  in  the  sump  and  from  this 
it  is  forced  by  a pump  direct  to  the  main  shaft  bear- 


ings and  through  holes  in  the  crank  webs  to  the  crank 
pins,  then  on  through  oil  pipes  attached  to  the  connect- 


BRflNCH  OIL 
PIPE 


VAL  VE  GEAR 
CASE 


WRIST  pm 

tONNECTINGROD 
BRANCH  OIL 
PIPES 


CRANK1  SHAFT  PIN 


- OIL  GORGE 


OIL  PUMP 


Fia.  53. — The  fuel  force  feed  system. 


118  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


ing  rods,  or  through  hollow  connecting  rods,  to  the 
wrist  pins. 

Both  the  cylinders  and  pistons  are  supplied  by  oil 
thrown  from  the  lower  ends  of  the  connecting  rods  as 
shown  in  Fig.  53.  In  some  engines  there  is  an  extra 
lubrication  of  the  cylinders  supplied  by  oil  flowing 
through  the  wrist  pins  and  this  is  the  only  system  in 


which  the  lubrication  of  the  cylinders  is  performed  in 
this  way.  The  Pierce-Arrow  uses  the  full  force  feed 
system ; indeed  the  force  feed  and  full  force  feed  sys- 
tems are  generally  found  on  the  highest-priced  cars. 

How  the  Oil  Pump  Is  Made.— The  gear  type  of 
oil  pump  is  the  most  efficient  and  dependable  for  mo- 
tor car  engines  and  for  this  reason  it  is  about  the  only 
one  used  at  the  present  time  for  lubricating  systems. 

It  works  on  the  same  principle  as  a water  wheel  with 
buckets  on  its  rim,  the  oil  being  carried  up  by  the  teeth 
of  the  gears  which  run  outward  from  the  oil  inlet  as 
shown  in  Fig.  54. 

Oil  Pressure  and  Pressure  Gauges. — The  pres- 


HOW  THE  OILING  SYSTEM  WORKS  119 


sure  gauge  is  mounted  on  the  dash  of  the  car  where 
it  can  be  easily  seen. 

It  is  constructed  like  a steam  pressure  gauge,  that 
is,  it  has  a dial  showing  in  figures  the  pressure  in 
pounds  to  the  square  inch.  A hand,  or  pointer,  is  con- 
nected by  a series  of  levers  to  a spring  against  which 
the  oil  pressure  acts  and  this  moves  the  hand  over  the 
dial. 

The  pressure  of  oil  varies  according  to  whether  the 
car  is  running  slowly  or  is  making  fast  time,  and  it  also 
varies  according  to  the  engine  used;  for  these  reasons 
no  hard  and  fast  rule  can  be  given. 

About  Engine  Lubrication. — To  get  the  best  re- 
sults every  make  of  engine  requires  a particular  grade 
of  oil  and  some  engine  makers  specify  a certain  make 
and  grade  of  oil  which  you  should  use. 

In  any  event  the  right  oil  for  your  engine  must  be 
one  that  will  (1)  lessen  friction  to  the  greatest  ex- 
tent; (2)  it  must  have  body  enough  to  resist  the  high 
temperatures  of  the  engine  and  form  a film  between 
the  cylinder  wall  and  the  piston  rings;  (3)  it  must  be 
fluid  enough  to  flow  freely  in  cold  weather,  and  (4)  it 
must  be  suited  to  the  lubricating  system  of  your  en- 
gine. 

When  a poor  oil  is  used,  scored  cylinder  walls,  as 
shown  at  A in  Fig.  55,  are  almost  sure  to  happen;  car- 
bon is  bound  to  be  found  in  the  combustion  chamber 
as  shown  at  B and  the  piston  rings  will  leak  as  shown 
at  C.  This  is  because  the  oil  does  not  form  a film  be- 
tween the  piston  rings  and  the  cylinder  walls  and  the 
rings  not  only  leak  but  may  scratch  the  walls. 


120  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


If  an  oil  that  is  too  light,  that  is,  without  enough 
body,  is  used  it  will  slip  by  the  piston  rings  on  the  com- 
pression and  power  strokes  and  this  not  only  results  in 
loss  of  power,  but  some  of  it  is  deposited  as  carbon 
in  the  combustion  chamber. 

On  the  other  hand,  when  an  oil  is  too  heavy,  that 
is,  when  it  has  too  much  body,  it  will  not  form  a film 
easily  and  again  there  is  a loss  of  power. 

Cheap  grades  of  cylinder  oil  get  gummy  when  heated 
and  this  causes  a loss  of  power,  makes  the  valves  and 


W/)LL 


Fig.  55. — A,  B and  C.  Troubles  caused  by  using  poor  oil  or 
wrong  grade  of  oiL 


piston  rings  stick  in  their  seats  and  clogs  up  the  oiling 
system.  The  moral  is,  buy  a good  bodied  oil. 

The  Kind  of  Oil  to  Use. — A light  or  medium  oil 
should  only  be  used  on  an  engine  having  a straight 
splash  or  a splash  circulating  system  and  in  cold 
weather  what  is  called  a cold  test  oil  should  be 
used. 

The  force  feed  system  also  requires  a medium  bodied 
oil  to  properly  lubricate  the  bearing  surfaces,  but  in  a 
few  makes  of  engines  the  oiling  system  can  be  so  de- 
signed that  a heavy  bodied  oil  can  be  used.  An  oil 


HOW  THE  OILING  SYSTEM  WORKS  121 


having  a medium  or  a heavy  body  should  he  used  with 
full  force  feed  systems  and  the  oil  supply  can  be  varied 
by  changing  the  pressure  adjustment. 

Great  care  should  be  taken  in  getting  an  oil  of  good 
quality  and  of  the  right  body.  When  in  doubt  write 
the  maker  of  your  car,  or  the  Vacuum  Oil  Company,  61 
Broadway,  or  Platt  and  Washburn  Refining  Co.,  11 
Broadway,  New  York  City. 

What  Lubricating  Oils  Are  Made  Of. — All  lu- 
bricating oils  for  motor  car  gasoline  engines  are  made 
from  'petroleum,  the  same  crude  earth  oil  from  which 
gasoline  is  obtained.  Chemically,  lubricating  oils  are 
formed  of  hydrogen  and  carbon;  there  is  also  a lot  of 
free  carbon  as  well  as  other  foreign  matter  in  lubri- 
cating oils  but  these  are  filtered  out.  The  carbon  which 
is  a constituent  part  of  the  oil  cannot  of  course  be  taken 
away  from  it  without  changing  the  chemical  nature 
of  the  oil  itself. 

When  enough  oxygen  is  present  the  carbon  is  burned 
up  with  the  hydrogen  and  this  is  why  it  is  necessary 
to  have  a vent,  or  breather,  in  the  crank  case.  If  too 
light  an  oil  is  used  it  gets  into  the  combustion  cham- 
ber, the  hydrogen  bums  up  and  the  carbon  remains 
behind  because  there  is  no  oxygen  present  for  its  com- 
bustion. 

Troubles  of  the  Oiling  System  and  How  to  Get 
Rid  of  Them. — When  the  Engine  Wont  Start. — This 
is  often  caused  by  poor  compression ; test  the  compres- 
sion by  cranking  the  engine  by  hand;  if  it  is  poor  (1) 
the  piston  rings  may  be  stuck  in  their  seats ; to  release 
them  pour  a little  kerosene  into  the  cylinders  through 


122  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


the  priming  cocks  while  the  engine  is  warm  arfd  let  it 
stay  in  them  all  night. 

(2)  A cracked  spark  ping  will  also  cause  poor  com- 
pression, also  (3)  the  valve  heads,  or  their  seats,  may 
be  warped,  or  (4)  the  valves  may  not  be  properly  timed ; 
these  are  jobs  for  you  or  the  machinist;  (5)  poor  com- 
pression may  also  result  from  a lack  of  oil  in  the  cyl- 
inders ; drain  off  the  old  oil,  put  in  new  oil  and  run  the 
engine  at  cranking  speed  until  the  compression  is 
good. 

When  the  Engine  Stops. — The  cylinders  may  be  dry, 
in  which  case  put  in  a fresh  supply  of  oil. 

When  the  Engine  Overheats. — This  is  sometimes 
caused  by  the  lack  of  oil,  or  the  use  of  oil  that  is  not 
suited  to  the  engine. 

When  the  Explosions  are  Weak  but  Regular. — This 
may  be  due  to  the  lack  of  oil ; pour  a little  oil  into  each 
cylinder  and  then  crank  the  engine  by  hand;  open  the 
drain  cock  and  let  the  old  oil  and  kerosene  run  out  and 
then  put  in  new  oil  and  run  at  cranking  speed  until  the 
compression  is  good. 

When  the  Engine  Misfires. — This  is  occasionally 
caused  by  the  use  of  a poor,  or  an  unsuitable,  grade  of 
oil  and  either  of  which  will  form  a film  of  carbon  on 
the  spark  plugs. 

When  the  Engine  Hisses. — This  may  be  caused  by 
scored  cylinder  walls  which  in  turn  is  often  the  result 
of  a lack  of  oil;  when  this  happens  the  cylinders  will 
have  to  be  rebored.  Keep  the  lubricating  system  clean 
and  you  will  save  the  engine  and  yourself  much  wear 
and  tear. 


HOW  THE  OILING  SYSTEM  WORKS  128 


When  the  Engine  SmoJces. — This  is  largely  the  re- 
sult of  (1)  too  much  oil,  or  (2)  oil  that  is  not  suited 
to  the  engine. 

What  to  Lubricate  the  Clutch  With. — Oil  Dish 
Type. — Where  the  clutch  is  of  the  oil  immersed  disk 
type  use  a lubricant  made  of  half  kerosene  and  half  lu- 
bricating oil ; do  not  put  more  than  a pint  of  the  mixture 
in  the  case  at  one  time  and  before  putting  in  fresh  oil 
drain  off  the  used  oil. 

Cone  Clutch  Type. — When  the  clutch  grips  or  takes 
hold  suddenly  lubricate  the  leather,  if  it  needs  it,  with 
a little  castor,  or  neatsfoot  oil. 

What  to  Lubricate  the  Transmission  With. — 

The  lubrication  of  the  transmission  gears  comes  next 
in  importance  to  the  engine.  Now  the  teeth  of  gears  are 
really  little  levers  and  two  or  three  teeth  on  one  gear 
pry  the  teeth  on  the  other  gear  with  a force  equal  to 
from  10  to  60  horse  power. 

With  this  tremendous  frictional  strain  upon  them  the 
finest  nickel  steel  gears  would  quickly  wear  away  if 
some  kind  of  a cushioning  film  did  not  separate  the 
teeth  as  they  press  against  each  other.  A good  lubricant 
for  the  transmission  must  possess  (a)  lasting  qualities, 
(b)  resist  great  pressure  and  (c)  slip  easily  in  order 
to  reduce  friction  to  a minimum  and  at  the  same  time 
cushion  the  pressure  of  the  gears. 

To  satisfy  the  rigorous  conditions  exacted  of  a trans- 
mission lubricant  a gear  compound  is  generally  used  in- 
stead of  oil.  This  is  made  by  blending  a sponge,  or 
fiber  grease  with  a good  lubricating  oil.  This  kind  of 
a grease  sticks  well  to  the  gears,  forms  a good  cushion 


124  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


for  the  gear  teeth,  makes  the  meshing  practically  noise- 
less and  is  far  less  likely  to  leak  than  an  oil.  Should 
the  transmission  case  have  a tendency  to  leak  use  a 
heavy  grade  of  stringy  gear  compound. 

What  to  Lubricate  the  Universal  Joints  With. 

— Almost  as  much  pressure  is  brought  to  hear  in  a uni- 
versal joint  as  there  is  in  the  transmission  gears  and 
unless  a good  lubricant  of  the  right  kind  is  used  it  is 
likely  to  run  hot.  Pack  the  joints  with  a liquid  grease 
or  heavy  oil. 

What  to  Lubricate  the  Differential  With. — The 

differential  gears  are  also  subjected  to  tremendous  lev- 
erages and  hence  they  must  have  a lubricant  that  pos 
sesses  all  the  wearing  and  slippery  qualities  of  the  best 
transmission  compound. 

It  is  good  practice  to  use  a heavier  gear  compound 
than  that  in  the  transmission  because  the  teeth  of  the 
gears  are  larger  and  a greater  cushioning  surface  be- 
tween them  is  needed.  A good  gear  compound  of  the 
heavier  kind  needs  little  attention,  is  economical  and 
there  is  no  danger  of  leakage. 

What  to  Lubricate  the  Water  Pump  With. — 
The  hearings  of  the  pump  should  he  lubricated  with  a 
water-proof  compound  so  that  a film  will  be  formed 
which  will  not  give  way  under  the  pressure  of  the  wa- 
ter. You  can  buy  a lubricating  compound  made  espe- 
cially for  the  purpose. 

Your  Lubricating  Chart  and  Schedule. — I have 
not  attempted  to  tell  you  which  oil  or  what  grease  to 
use  for  the  reason  that  each  maker  has  given  the  lubri- 
cation of  his  car  the  greatest  consideration  and  all  the 


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125 


126  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


different  oils  and  greases  that  are  on  the  market  the 
severest  tests. 

Consequently  he  knows  better  than  any  one  else  the 
lubricants  that  are  best  suited  to  his  machine.  And 
whatever  make  of  lubricants  the  car  manufacturer  tells 
you  to  use,  use  it  and  no  others,  no  matter  what  the  oil 
dealer  or  the  garage  man  may  say  to  the  contrary. 

Further,  when  you  buy  a car  you  will  get  a lubri- 
cating chart  with  it,  as  shown  in  Fig.  56,  only  larger. 
This  chart  is  a top  view  of  the  chassis  which  shows  at  a 
glance  where  (1)  either  oil  or  grease  is  to  be  used;  (2) 
how  much  of  the  lubricant  is  to  be  used  and  (3)  how 
often  it  is  to  be  used.  Make  your  lubricating  chart  in- 
structions a fetish  and  your  reward  will  he  great  in 
the  days  when  your  neighbor’s  car  is  in  the  scrap  heap. 


CHAPTER  VIII 


HOW  THE  COOLING  SYSTEM  WORKS 

To  keep  the  cylinders  of  the  engine  from  getting  too 
hot  two  general  types  of  cooling  systems  are  used  and 
these  are  (1)  cooling  with  air , and  (2)  cooling  with 
water.  A combination  of  these  two  systems  is  used  on 
all  cars  with  but  two  exceptions. 

The  Air  Cooled  Engine. — In  this  system  the  en- 
gine is  so  designed  that  the  cylinders  are  cooled  off  by 
forcing  a current  of  air  directly  on  them. 


fl  ^ 1 ^ 

RING  CYLINDER.  MB  CYLINDER 


Fig.  57. — A.  Air  cooled  cylinders.  B.  Air  cooled  cylinders. 

To  make  the  cylinders  radiate  the  excess  heat  as 
rapidly  as  possible,  parallel  metal  rings  as  shown  at  A 
in  Fig.  57  or  radial  ribs  as  shown  at  B are  cast  on  the 
outside  cylinder  walls.  The  stream  of  air  is  set  up  by  a 

227 


128  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 

fan,  fixed  to  the  rim  of  the  flywheel  as  shown  at  C. 
The  Franklin  and  the  Eagle-Maccomber  are  the  only 
;cars  using  the  air  cooled  type  of  engine. 


Fig.  57. — C.  A Franklin  air  cooled  engine.  2,220  cubic  feet  of  air 
flows  over  the  cylinders  every  minute. 


The  Water  Cooled  Engine. — The  water  cooling 
system  may  be  divided  into  two  classes  and  these  are 
(a)  the  thermo-syplion  system  and  (b)  the  pump  circu- 
lating system. 

In  the  water  cooled  engine  the  cylinders  are  jacketed, 
that  is,  each  cylinder  has  another  one  cast  around  it, 
leaving  a space  between  them,  as  explained  in  Chap- 
ter IY  and  shown  at  A in  Fig.  32,  and  cold  water  is 
forced  through  this  space  around  the  cylinders  either 
by  the  action  of  the  heat  itself  or  by  means  of  a pump. 

Whichever  scheme  is  used  the  water  is  made  to  flow 
through  a radiator  usually  set  in  front  of  the  engine, 


HOW  THE  COOLING  SYSTEM  WORKS  129 


and  this  cools  the  water  by  the  air  striking  it  as  the  car 
runs  along.  The  construction  of  the  different  kinds  of 
radiators  will  he  described  presently. 

The  Thermo-Syphon  System. — It  is  well  known 
that  when  water  is  heated  it  rises  to  the  top  of  the  ves- 
sel and  it  follows,  conversely,  that  the  cold  water  will 
stay  on  the  bottom,  and  this  is  the  principle  on  which 
the  tliermo-syphon  cooling  system  works.  This  is  be- 
cause cold  water  is  heavier  than  hot  water. 


Fig.  58. — A.  Diagram  of  the  thermo-syphon  system. 


The  jacketed  cylinders  are  connected  at  the  top  and 
the  bottom  with  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  radiator  as 
shown  at  A in  Fig.  58.  When  the  cylinders  heat  the 
water  enough  it  rises  to  the  top  and  flows  from  the  en- 
gine through  the  upper  pipe  to  the  radiator ; now  when 
the  air  strikes  the  radiator  it  cools  the  hot  water  at  the 
top  and  this  falls  to  the  bottom  when  it  flows  through 
the  lower  pipe  back  into  the  jacketed  cylinders  again. 

As  the  cold  water  flows  into  the  cylinder  jackets  it 
pushes  up  on  the  hot  water  and  the  latter  is  forced 


130  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


through,  the  upper  pipe  to  the  radiator  and  so  the  cir- 
culation of  the  water  around  the  cylinders  is  continu- 
ous. Over  one  third  of  the  cars  now  made  are  equipped 
with  the  thermo-syphon  cooling  system.  The  system 

F/LLEJZ 


Fig.  58. — B.  The  thermo -syphon  system  on  an  Overland  Car. 


as  applied  to  the  Overland  car  is  shown  at  B in  Fig. 

58. 

The  Pump  Circulating  System. — To  make  the 
water  circulate  around  the  cylinders  without  regard  to 
the  heat  developed,  a pump  is  used  as  shown  at  A in  Fig, 

59. 

The  pump  is  driven  by  a counter-shaft  which  is 
geared  to  the  crank  shaft;  the  pipe  connected  to  the 
lower  part  of  the  radiator  is  coupled  to  the  intake  of 
the  pump;  the  outlet  of  the  pump  is  joined  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  cylinder  jackets  and  the  top  of  the  latter  is 


HOW  THE  COOLING  SYSTEM  WORKS  131 


connected  in  turn  to  the  radiator.  The  pump  system 
of  a Buick  car  is  shown  at  B in  Eig.  59. 


W/)TFR 


filler 


Fig.  59. — B.  The  pump  circulating  system  on  a Buick  ear. 


Kinds  of  Water  Pumps. — There  are  two  types  of 
pumps  used  for  circulating  water  systems  and  these  are 
(1)  centrifugal  pumps  and  (2)  positive , or  force  feed 
pumps. 


132  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


The  Centrifugal  Pumps. — There  are  various  kinds 
of  centrifugal  pumps,  hut  the  cross-section  of  the  one 
pictured  in  Fig.  59  shows  the  principle  on  which  pumps 
of  this  kind  work  in  general  use  on  cars  today.  This 
simple  and  effective  form  of  pump  consists  of  a num- 
ber of  curved  blades  mounted  like  the  spokes  of  a 
wheel  on  a hub  and  these  fit  snugly  to  the  sides  of  the 
pump  case  and  its  circumference  so  that  there  will  be 
as  little  leakage  between  the  blades  and  the  case  as 
possible. 

The  water  is  led  into  the  pump  at  or  near  the  center 
of  the  case  and  it  is  thrown  out  by  the  centrifugal  force 
of  the  blades,  as  they  revolve,  into  the  discharge  pipe 
which  is  connected  to  the  jackets. 

Positive , or  Force  Feed  Pumps. — There  are  two 
kinds  of  these  pumps  in  general  use  and  these  are  (1) 
the  gear , or  tooth  wheel  pump,  and  (2)  the  rotary  pump. 
The  first  is  made  exactly  like  the  oil  pump  shown  in 
Fig.  54. 

The  second  consists  of  an  eccentric  mounted  on  a 
shaft  in  a casing  and  when  the  eccentric  revolves  it 
presses  against  the  circumference  of  the  casing  and  in 
this  way  it  forces  a certain  amount  of  water  into  the 
discharge  pipe.  These  pumps  are  found  usually  on  the 
higher  priced  cars. 

How  the  Radiator  Is  Made. — The  radiator  is  an 
arrangement,  made  up  of  a large  number  of  small  pipes 
in  or  around  which  the  water  heated  by  the  cylinders 
flows;  and  on  or  through  which  the  air  to  cool  it  blows 
when  the  car  is  running. 

There  are  many  different  radiators  on  the  market 


HOW  THE  COOLING  SYSTEM  WORKS  133 


but  all  of  them  may  bo  classified  under  two  general 
heads,  namely,  (1)  the  tubular  radiator  and  (2)  the 
cellular,  or  honeycomb  radiator.  The  radiator  that 
has  the  largest  surface  exposed  to  the  cooling  action 
of  the  air  gives  the  best  results,  but  the  cost,  strength, 


Fig.  60. — Tubular  and  cellular  radiators. 


weight,  likelihood  of  leakage,  and  ease  of  repairing  are 
also  factors  that  must  be  taken  care  of  in  the  design  of 
radiators. 

The  Tubular  Radiator.— In  this  type  a large 
number  of  parallel  tubes,  which  are  open  at  both  ends, 
are  soldered  to  the  top  and  to  the  bottom  of  the  radiator 
as  shown  at  A in  Eig.  60.  In  some  radiators  the  tubes 
are  set  vertically,  and  in  others  they  are  set  horizontally, 
the  former  way,  though,  being  the  most  common. 

Then  parallel  disks  or  spirals  of  sheet  metal  are  sol- 
dered on  each  tube  about  % of  an  inch  apart  and  as  the 


134  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


water  flows  through  and  heats  the  tubes  the  heat  is  ra- 
diated by  them  and  therefore  the  tubes  and  the  water 
in  them  are  cooled  by  the  air  striking  the  disks  or 
spirals. 

The  Cellular  Radiator. — This  type  of  radiator  is 
made  up  of  a large  number  of  small  short  tubes  set  par- 
allel with  each  other  and  horizontally ; hence  these  tubes 
are  only  as  long  as  the  thickness  of  the  radiator  and 
are  soldered  to  a front  and  back  plate  drilled  full  of 
holes  as  shown  at  B in  Fig.  60. 

When  water  is  poured  into  this  radiator  it  fills  the 
spaces  between  the  tubes  and  the  air  blowing  through 
the  latter  cools  the  water  circulating  around  them.  A 
cellular  radiator  is  less  likely  to  be  damaged  than  a 
tubular  radiator  and  it  is  much  easier  to  repair,  espe- 
cially if  you  are  on  the  road. 

The  Combination  Fan  and  Water  Cooling  Sys- 
tem.— In  addition  to  the  radiator  cooling  system  a fan 
is  used  to  augment  the  circulation  of  the  air  on  nearly 
all  cars. 

The  fan  is  usually  set  just  hack  of  the  radiator  and 
it  aids  materially  in  sucking  the  air  through  it  and 
this  cools  the  water  much  more  rapidly.  The  fan  is 
often  mounted  on  an  adjustable  arm  the  lower  end  of 
which  is  fixed  to  the  block  of  the  engine  by  means  of  a 
stud.  The  common  practice  is  to  drive  the  fan  by  a 
belt  from  a pulley  on  the  end  of  the  driving  shaft.  It 
can  also  be  driven  by  direct  gearing  or  by  a silent 
chain. 

Keeping  the  Cooling  System  in  Good  Order. — 

The  Radiator. — (1)  Fill  the  radiator  with  clean  water, 


HOW  THE  COOLING  SYSTEM  WORKS  135 


pouring  it  through  a strainer,  and  keep  it  full.  Use 
soft  water  as  hard  water  generally  contains  lime  and 
other  impurities.  (2)  When  the  radiator  is  empty,  or 
nearly  so,  do  not  pour  cold  water  into  it. 

(3)  Drain  off  the  water  in  the  cooling  system  at  least 
once  a month  by  opening  the  drain  cock,  or  plug,  at  the 
bottom  of  the  radiator,  and  fill  it  with  clean  water;  (4) 
when  dirt  is  allowed  to  accumulate  on  the  outside  of  the 
tubes  of  a tubular  radiator  or  inside  of  the  tubes  of  a 
cellular  radiator  it  forms  a film  on  them  that  keeps  the 
heat  from  being  radiated  and  this  may  cause  the  engine 
to  overheat;  always  keep  the  outside  of  the  radiator 
washed  clean. 

(5)  To  thoroughly  clean  the  radiator  inside,  uncouple 
the  hose  connections  and  flush  it  out  by  means  of  a gar- 
den hose  connected  with  a hydrant  so  that  the  water 
under  pressure  will  flow  from  the  bottom  through  to 
the  top;  this  will  remove  all  rust  and  scale  that  may 
have  accumulated  inside  and  this  must  he  done  every 
three  months  to  make  the  cooling  system  effective; 
finally  don’t  use  a potash  solution  to  clean  the  water 
cooling  system;  instead  dissolve  one  pound  of  sal  soda 
in  a gallon  of  water ; fill  the  cooling  system  with  it,  let 
the  engine  run  an  hour  and  then  drain  it  off  while  the 
motor  is  still  warm. 

Adjusting  the  Fan. — The  belt  should  be  kept  tight 
enough  to  prevent  it  from  slipping  on  the  fan  pulley, 
but  it  should  not  be  too  tight.  The  right  adjustment 
can  be  made  by  moving  the  arm  that  carries  the  fan 
and  tightening  up  the  bolt  that  holds  it  to  the  engine 
block. 


136  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


Taking  Care  of  the  Pump. — On  each  side  of  the 
pump  on  the  shaft  you  will  find  a grease  cup  and  this 
should  he  given  a turn  occasionally.  Should  the  pump 
begin  to  leak  around  the  shaft  screw  up  the  stuffing  box 
but  not  too  tight  or  the  shaft  will  bind. 

What  to  Do  When  Winter  Conies. — If  a car  ia 
not  properly  taken  care  of  in  cold  weather  very  serious 
damage  may  result. 

When  you  put  your  car  in  the  garage  if  the  temper- 
ature is  40  degrees  above  0 Fahrenheit  or  less,  draw 
off  the  water  in  the  cooling  system,  for  if  the  tempera- 
ture should  drop  to  32  degrees  F.,  the  water  will  freeze 
in  it  and  this  may  put  holes  in  the  radiator  tubes  and 
even  crack  the  cylinders. 

When  you  stop  your  car  in  cold  weather  don’t  let  the 
engine  stop,  but  throttle  it  down  to  keep  the  water 
warm. 

If  the  radiator  is  fitted  with  ventilating  doors, 
close  them;  if  not,  then  cover  about  half  of  the  lower 
part  of  it  with  tin  or  cardboard. 

When  Zero  Weather  Sets  In.— When  the  tem- 
perature drops  to  the  freezing  point  draw  the  water 
from  the  circulating  system  and  fill  it  with  one  of  the 
following  anti-freezing  solutions: 

For  Temperatures  from,  32°  to  15°  Above  0°  Use 

15  per  cent 
10  per  cent 
75  per  cent 


Wood  Alcohol 
Glycerine 
Water 


100  per  cent 


HOW  THE  COOLING  SYSTEM  WORKS  137 


For  Temperatures  from  15°  Above  to  0 ° Use 

Wood  Alcohol. 20  per  cent 

Glycerine  15  per  cent 

Water  65  per  cent 


100  per  cent 

For  Temperatures  from  0°  to  10°  Below  0°  Use 

Wood  Alcohol 25  per  cent 

Glycerine  15  per  cent 

Water . 60  per  cent 


100  per  cent 

For  Temperatures  from  10°  to  20°  Below  0°  Use 

Wood  Alcohol 50  per  cent 

Glycerine  25  per  cent 

Water  25  per  cent 


100  per  cent 

Add  enough  alcohol  to  make  up  for  the  amount  that 
evaporates. 


CHAPTER  IX 


HOW  THE  LIGHTING  AND  STARTING  SYSTEMS 
WORK 

Every  passenger  car  now  made  is  equipped  with  elec- 
tric lights  and,  with  but  very  few  exceptions,  with  elec- 
tric starters. 

How  in  order  to  have  electric  lights  as  well  as  to  start 
the  engine  without  cranking  it  by  hand  a storage  battery 
is  needed,  and  this  being  the  case  the  most  natural 
thing  in  the  world  was  to  make  it  also  serve  as  the  ini- 
tial source  of  current  for  the  ignition  system  as  de- 
scribed in  Chapter  VI,  and  this  is  what  is  meant  by  the 
three-in-one  system. 

The  Electric  Lighting  System. — There  are  three 
chief  parts  to  the  lighting  system  of  whatever  make,  and 
these  are  (1)  the  storage  battery , (2)  the  dynamo  to 
charge  it  with  and  (3)  the  automatic  cut-out. 

The  Storage  Battery. — How  the  Battery  Is 
Charged. — Each  cell  of  a storage  battery  will  develop  a 
; pressure  of  about  2 volts  and  the  amount  of  the  current, 
or  amperes,  delivered  by  it  depends  entirely  on  the  size 
of  the  plates.  About  90  per  cent  of  the  cars  now  made 
are  fitted  with  a 6 volt  battery,  8 per  cent  have  a 12 
volt  battery  and  the  others  have  a 24  volt  battery. 

The  battery  is  charged  by  means  of  a small  dynamo 
geared,  or  belted,  to  the  crank  shaft  of  the  engine.  Xow 

138 


LIGHTING  AND  STARTING  SYSTEMS  139 


when  the  pressure,  or  voltage,  of  the  dynamo  when  run- 
ning at  full  speed,  is  greater  than  that  of  the  storage  bat- 
tery some  of  the  current  will  flow  into  the  latter  and 
charge  it.  But  should  the  dynamo  fall  off  in  speed,  and 
hence  in  voltage,  the  current  from  the  storage  battery 
will  flow  hack  through  the  coils  of  the  dynamo  unless  the 
circuit  is  broken. 

To  automatically  close  the  battery  circuit  when  the 
dynamo  is  delivering  its  full  voltage,  and  to  open  the 
circuit  when  the  voltage  is  less  than  that  of  the  battery, 
an  automatic  cut-out , or  switch,  is  provided  and  this  is 
what  is  meant  by  the  terms  floating  a storage  battery  on 
the  line  and  floating  on  the  line  principle. 

Testing  the  Battery. — There  are  three  simple  ways 
to  test  a storage  battery  and  these  are  with  (1)  a test- 
lamp;  (2)  a voltmeter  and  (3)  a hydrometer.  To  use 
a test  lamp,  see  A,  Fig.  61.  Hold  one  end  of  the  lamp 
wires  on  the  positive  battery  terminal  and  the  end  of 
the  other  wire  on  the  negative  terminal  and  if  the  bat- 
tery is  all  right  the  lamp  will  light.  Each  cell  should 
be  tried  out  separately  if  the  lamp  does  not  light  when 
the  whole  battery  is  tested. 

To  test  the  battery  with  a voltmeter,  see  B ; hold  the 
ends  of  the  wires  on  the  + and  — terminals  of  each 
cell  of  the  battery,  and  if  it  is  in  working  order  the  volt- 
meter will  show  about  2 volts.  A hydrometer,  see  0, 
is  an  instrument  which  is  floated  in  the  battery  solu- 
tion, or  electrolyte,  and  the  depth  to  which  it  sinks  shows 
the  specific  gravity  of  it.  The  solution  of  a fully  charged 
battery  in  good  condition  will  generally  have  a specific 
gravity  of  between  1.275  and  1.300,  and  the  cells  of 


140  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


a battery  should  not  vary  more  than  15  or  20  points. 

The  Dynamo. — How  it  is  Made. — A dynamo  is 
made  like  the  low  tension  magneto  described  in  Chap- 
ter VI,  but  instead  of  having  permanent  magnets  a soft 


A TEST  AND  TROUBLE  LAMP 
OUTFIT 


A VOLTMETER  FOR 
TESTING  BATTERY 
CELLS 


A HYDROMETER 

FOR  TESTING 
THE  ACID  OF  A 
STORAGE  BAT- 
TERY 


Fig.  61. — A,  B and  C.  Apparatus  to  test  the  storage  battery. 


LIGHTING  AND  STARTING  SYSTEMS  141 


iron  core  wound  full  of  wire  is  used;  when  a current 
flows  through  the  coils  of  wire  the  iron  cere,  or  field 
magnet  as  it  is  called,  becomes  strongly  magnetic. 

The  field  magnet  of  a dynamo  can  be  wound  in  three 
different  ways,  and  these  are  (1)  series  wound,  as  shown 
at  A in  Fig.  62 ; (2)  shunt  wound  as  at  B,  and  (3)  com- 
pound wound  as  at  C.  Now  the  voltage  and  the  current 


* ^-5£P/£5  CIRCUIT 

c A COMPOUND 
WOUND  DYNAMO 

Fig.  62. — A,  B and  C.  How  dynamos  are  wound. 

(amperes)  of  a series  wound  dynamo  decrease  as  the 
load  of  the  outside  circuit — that  is,  the  power  taken  by 
the  lights  or  the  storage  battery — is  increased. 

The  voltage  of  a shunt  wound  dynamo  increases  as 
the  current  in  the  outside  circuit  decreases  and  the 
other  way  about,  and  so  if  a dynamo  has  both  a series 
and  a shunt  wound  field  magnet,  namely,  a compound 
winding,  it  will  give  a more  nearly  constant  voltage  at 
all  loads,  and  this  is  the  kind  of  a dynamo  that  is  used 
for  motor  car  work. 


142  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


The  Automatic  Cut-Out. — An  easy  way  to  close  a 
circuit  with  an  electric  current  is  to  use  an  electromag- 
net. 

An  electromagnet  consists  of  a bar  of  soft  iron  on 
which  is  wound  a coil  of  copper  wire.  If  a current  is 
made  to  flow  through  the  coil  and  a flat  piece  of  soft 
iron,  called  an  armature,  is  brought  near  the  end  of  the 
electromagnet  it  will  be  attracted  to  it. 

How  the  Cut-Out  Works. — If  now  the  electromagnet 
is  made  to  close  a pair  of  spring  contact  points,  just  as 
it  does  in  the  vibrator  of  a spark  coil,  and  the  contact 
points  are  connected  in  one  of  the  main  line  wires  be- 
tween the  dynamo  and  the  storage  battery  as  shown  at  A 
in  Fig.  63,  while  the  coil  of  the  electromagnet  is  con- 
nected across  the  main  wires  between  the  dynamo  and 
the  storage  battery,  it  is  clear  that  when  the  dynamo 
begins  to  develop  current  it  will  energize  the  electro- 
magnet; this  in  turn  will  attract  the  armature 
and  so  close  the  main  line  circuit  when  the  current 
from  the  dynamo  will  flow  into  and  charge  the  bat- 
tery. 

But  when  the  dynamo  slows  down  the  current  gets 
weak  in  the  coil  of  the  electromagnet,  the  spring  flies 
back  and  opens  the  contacts  and  the  dynamo  is  auto- 
matically cut  out  from  the  storage  battery. 

Because  the  current  in  the  electromagnet  is  apt  to  get 
weak  momentarily  even  when  the  dynamo  is  running 
fairly  fast  a second  coil  is  wound  around  the  first  coil 
on  the  electromagnet  and  this  is  connected  in  the  posi- 
tive main  line,  or  feed  wire,  as  shown  at  B.  As  soon 
as  the  contact  points  are  closed  by  the  current  flowing 


LIGHTING  AND  STARTING  SYSTEMS  143 


through  the  first,  or  shunt  coil  as  it  is  called,  of  the 
magnet  the  current  begins  to  flow  through  the  second, 
or  series  coil,  and  this  strengthens  the  electromagnet  and 
so  prevents  the  contact  points  from  breaking  apart,  un- 
less the  speed  of  the  dynamo  falls  too  far  below  the 
normal. 

How  the  Output  of  the  Dynamo  Is  Regulated. — Be- 
sides the  cut-out  above  described  there  is  another  pair  of 


contact  points,  called  the  regulator  points , which  are 
opened  and  closed  by  another  electromagnet  connected 
in  circuit  with  the  field  wires  as  shown  at  C.  When 
the  points  are  drawn  apart  a resistance  is  cut  into  the 
field  circuit  and  as  the  current  must  then  flow  through 
the  resistance  it  prevents  a further  increase  in  the  out- 
put of  the  dynamo. 

How  the  Current  Is  Measured. — To  know  to 
what  extent  the  battery  is  charged,  how  much  current  it 


144  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


is  delivering  and  whether  the  system  is  working  prop- 
erly, an  ammeter,  see  A,  Fig.  64,  is  used. 

The  ammeter  measures  the  amount  of  current  in  am- 


/7M METER 

Fig.  64. — A.  A double  scale  ammeter. 

peres  and  it  is  connected  in  the  circuit  as  shown  in  Fig. 
65,  that  is,  in  the  negative  feed  wire  between  the  dy- 
namo and  the  storage  battery.  It  usually  has  a double 


GU7S5  TUBE 


Fig.  64. — B.  A fuse  is  an  electric  safety  valve. 

scale , one  side  being  marked  charge  and  the  other  side 
discharge. 

When  the  needle  is  at  rest  on  0 it  shows  that  the 
battery  is  not  receiving  any  current  and  that  it  is  not 
delivering  any  current.  When  the  needle  swings  over 


LIGHTING  AND  STARTING  SYSTEMS  145 


to  the  side  marked  charge  it  shows  the  actual  amount 
of  current  that  is  generated  by  the  dynamo  and  which 
is  either  charging  the  battery  or  is  being  used  for  light- 
ing and  ignition  purposes.  When  the  needle  swings 
over  the  side  of  the  scale  marked  discharge  it  shows 
the  amount  of  the  current  that  is  being  pulled  by  the 
lamps  and  the  ignition  system. 


Fig.  65. — Wiring  diagram  of  a lighting  and  starting  system 
complete  (Gray  and  Davis  system). 

How  the  Lamps  Are  Wired  Up. — While  it 
amounts  to  exactly  the  same  thing  in  the  end  there  are 
two  systems  used  for  wiring  cars  and  these  are  (1) 
the  one-wire  system  and  (2)  the  two-wire  system. 

In  the  one-wire  system  a single  wire  is  run  from  the 
battery  to  the  lamps  and  the  return  connection  is  made 
through  the  frame  of  the  car  as  shown  in  the  wiring  dia- 
gram Fig.  65 ; this  is  called  also  the  grounded  system. 
In  the  two-wire  system  the  return  connector  is  an  insu- 
lated wire. 


146  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


Why  Lamps  Are  Connected  in  Parallel. — The  lamps 
are  connected  up  in  parallel , that  is,  they  are  connected 
across  the  field  wires,  as  shown  in  Fig.  65.  The  reason 
this  is  done  is  because  the  voltage  which  each  lamp 
takes  is  just  about  that  which  the  battery  can  develop 
and  each  one  pulls  just  the  amount  of  current,  or  am- 
peres, it  needs  to  light  it.  Then  again  if  one  lamp  bums 
out  it  does  not  affect  the  others  as  it  would  if  they  were 
connected  in  series.  The  dash  and  the  tail  lamps, 
though,  are  usually  connected  in  series  so  that  if  the 
tail  lamp  bums  out  the  dash  lamp  will  also  go  out  and 
so  indicate  it. 

Lamps  Have  Two  Sources  of  Current. — When  the 
car  is  running  over  10  miles  an  hour  the  lamps  are  fed 
directly  by  the  current  generated  by  the  dynamo  and 
when  the  car  is  running  less  than  10  miles  an  hour  the 
lamps  are  fed  by  the  battery. 

How  the  Lamps  Are  Protected. — To  protect  the 
lamps  from  burning  out  a fuse , see  B Fig.  64,  is  con- 
nected in  circuit  between  each  lamp  and  the  one  next 
to  it  and  the  positive  feed  wire.  For  this  reason  all 
of  the  wires  of  all  of  the  parts  are  led  to  a junction  box 
fixed  in  some  accessible  place. 

The  Sizes  of  Wires  to  Use. — Use  standard  automo- 
bile wire  or  cable  of  the  following  sizes:  For  wires 

connecting  the  dynamo  to  the  battery  and  to  the  junction 
box  use  No.  10  wire  Brown  and  Sharp  gauge.  For 
junction  box  to  head  lamps  use  No.  12  B.  and  S.  gauge. 
For  all  other  lamps  and  horn  use  No.  14  B.  and  S. 
gauge. 

How  the  Horn  Is  Wired  Up. — The  magnet,  or  motor, 


LIGHTING  AND  STARTING  SYSTEMS  147 


which  operates  the  horn  is  wound  for  the  same  voltage 
as  the  lamps  and  it  is  also  connected  in  parallel  with 
them  as  shown  in  Tig.  65. 

The  Electric  Starting  System. — All  sorts  of 
schemes  have  been  devised  to  start  the  engine  without 
having  to  crank  it  by  hand  and  these  may  be  sifted  down 
into  four  general  types,  namely,  (1)  compressed  air ; 
(2)  gas;  (3)  mechanical,  and  (4)  electrical. 

Compressed  air  and  gas  starters  are  entirely  out  of 
use  and  so  need  no  description.  As  far  as  I know,  and 
I have  examined  the  specifications  of  159  passenger 
cars,  the  Ford  is  the  only  one  that  is  not  equipped  with 
an  electric  starter;  there  are  several  mechanical  start- 
ers on  the  market  for  Ford  cars,  but  as  space  is  at  a 
premium,  let’s  stick  to  the  more  general  electric  starter. 

The  Electric  Motor. — Away  back  in  the  early 
days  of  electric  lighting  when  the  dynamo  was  as  frisky 
as  a short  tailed  calf  in  fly  time,  some  one  acciden- 
tally found  that  when  an  electric  current  was  made  to 
flow  into  the  coils  of  a dynamo  the  armature  would  re- 
volve and  so  the  electric  motor  came  into  being  just  like 
Topsy. 

The  Electric  Starter. — Now  all  there  is  to  an  elec- 
tric starting  system  is  the  motor  and  the  storage  battery 
with  a starting  switch  in  the  circuit  between  them  as 
shown  in  the  wiring  diagrams,  Figs.  65  and  66 ; when- 
ever the  switch  is  closed  the  current  will  flow  through 
the  coils  of  the  field  magnet,  the  armature  will  re- 
volve and  so  develop  power. 

How  the  Drive  Is  Made. — The  main  thing  to 
know  about  an  electric  starter  is  (1)  how  the  electric 


148  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


motor  is  connected  with  the  engine  so  that  it  will  start 
it,  and  (2)  how  after  starting  the  engine  it  is  discon- 
nected from  it. 


MOTOR 


FIELD  MAGNET  5j/jRt/HC 
SWITCH 


jL 


tm 


STORAGE 

battery 


'armature 

Fig.  66. — Wiring'  diagram  of  an  electric  starter. 


One  way  it  is  done  is  like  this : The  flywheel  of  the 
engine  has  teeth  cut  on  its  rim,  making  it  a gear  as 
shown  at  A in  Fig.  67.  A small  gear  is  fixed  to  the 


Fig.  67. — A.  The  electric  starter  complete.  Starter  gear  out  of 
mesh  but  ready  to  be  automatically  screwed  into  the 
fly  wheel  gear. 


LIGHTING  AND  STARTING  SYSTEMS  149 


shaft  of  the  motor  so  that  it  will  mesh  with  the  flywheel 
gear  in  order  to  start  the  engine  and  to  demesh  auto- 
matically after  the  engine  has  started. 

Look  at  B and  everything  will  be  clear.  A sleeve 
with  screw  threads  cut  in  it  is  mounted  on  the  shaft  of 
the  armature;  a small  gear  weighted  on  one  side  and 
which  has  threads  cut  on  the  inside  of  it  screws  on 


Fig.  67. — B.  The  motor  drive  of  an  electric  starter. 


the  sleeve  like  a nut  on  a holt.  The  sleeve  is  secured 
to  the  armature  shaft  by  means  of  a strong  stiff  spring, 
one  end  of  which  is  fastened  to  the  shaft  with  a bolt  and 
the  other  end  is  fastened  to  the  screw  sleeve  with  a 
screw. 

How  the  Drive  Works. — Suppose  now  the  en- 
gine is  stopped  and  you  want  to  start  it;  the  gear  on 
the  sleeve  of  the  armature  shaft  is  demeshed  from  the 
flywheel  gear  as  shown  at  A.  Now  when  you  press 
down  on  the  starting  switch  it  closes  the  battery  and 
motor  circuit  and  the  armature  shaft  begins  to  spin ; the 
inertia  weight  of  the  small  screw  gear  keeps  it  from  re- 


150  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


volving  with  the  shaft  with  the  result  that  it  screws  its 
way  along  the  threaded  sleeve  until  it  meshes  with  the 
gear  on  the  flywheel. 

When  the  screw  gear  reaches  the  stop  collar  it  must, 
of  course,  turn  with  the  sleeve ; by  this  time  the  electric 
motor  will  have  reached  its  highest  speed  and,  hence, 
is  developing  its  greatest  power,  and  as  the  screw  gear 
is  smaller  than  the  flywheel  gear  in  about  the  ratio  of  1 
to  10  it  exerts  a tremendous  leverage  and  so  turns  the 
crank  shaft  around  with  it. 

The  purpose  of  the  spring  connecting  the  sleeve  to 
the  shaft  is  so  that  the  strain  on  the  armature  shaft  will 
be  eased  up  a hit ; the  teeth  are  beveled  and  this  with 
the  cushioning  effect  of  the  spring  lessens  the  chances 
of  the  teeth  of  the  screw  gear  being  stripped  or  the 
shaft  sheared  off. 

When  the  engine  has  been  started  and  the  speed  of 
the  flywheel  is  high  enough  it  makes  the  screw  gear  re- 
volve faster  than  the  threaded  sleeve;  this  causes  it  to 
move  endwise  out  of  mesh  and  in  this  way  the  engine  is 
prevented  from  driving  the  electric  motor.  Thus  the 
screw  gear  is  demeshed  automatically  from  the  flywheel 
gear  and  being  weighted  it  is  held  to  the  sleeve  in  this 
position  until  the  switch  is  opened  and  the  electric  mo- 
tor stops. 

The  above  device  is  the  Eclipse-Bendix  drive  and  is 
largely  used  for  both  passenger  cars  and  motor  trucks. 
Various  other  means  for  meshing  and  demeshing  the 
starting  motor  and  flywheel  gear  have  been  devised,  but 
the  one  described  will  serve  to  show  the  fundamental 
principles  underlying  electric  starters  in  general. 


CHAPTER  X 


WHAT  YOU  CAN  FIX  ON  YOUR  CAR 

There  are  some  things  you  can  fix  on  your  car  when 
it  goes  wrong  and  others  you  had  better  let  a machinist 
attend  to. 

It’s  pretty  hard  to  draw  the  line  between  the  things 
which  you  can  set  to  rights  and  those  which  are  a me- 
chanic’s job,  but  I am  assuming  that  you  are  the  average 
motor  car  owner  and  that  the  mechanism  is  new  to  you. 
So  let’s  hop  to  it. 

When  Your  Car  Stops  on  the  Road 

Finding  the  Trouble. — If  there  is  nothing  broken 
on  your  car  the  trouble  must  be  with  the  engine.  Look 
for  the  cause  as  follows : 

(1)  See  that  there  is  a supply  of  gasoline  in  the  tank. 

(2)  That  there  is  plenty  of  lubricating  oil,  and 

(3)  That  there  is  enough  water. 

Finding  there  is  a full  complement  of  these  liquids, 
the  trouble  then  must  be  either : 

(1)  In  the  fuel  system,  or 

(2)  In  the  ignition  system. 

See  if  the  gasoline  pipo  Hue  is  clear  by  flooding  the 
carburetor  and  if  it  is,  then  you  are  reasonably  sure  the 
fault  is  with  the  ignition  system.  In  this  case  see  that : 

151 


152  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


(1)  The  switch  is  on; 

(2)  The  battery  is  not  run  down; 

(3)  The  connections  are  tight; 

(4)  The  wires  are  not  broken ; 

(5)  The  vibrators  of  the  spark  coil  are  not  stuck; 

(6)  The  contacts  in  the  timer  are  clean; 

(7)  The  spark  plugs  are  not  broken,  and 

(8)  That  there  is  a strong  enough  spark. 

When  you  have  attended  to  these  few  several  little 
things,  crank  your  car  and  go  ahead. 

The  Things  You  Ought  to  Carry.—  The  Tools 
You  Should  Have. — The  following  kit  of  tools,  see  Fig. 
68,  will  he  found  useful  in  making  road  repairs:  (1) 

a machinist’s  hammer;  (2)  large  and  small  screw  driv- 
ers; (3)  a 6-inch  and  a 12-inch  monkey  wrench;  (4) 
a cold  chisel;  (5)  a couple  of  flat  mill  files;  (6)  a key 
puller;  (7)  a pair  of  6-inch  combination  pliers;  (8)  a 
pair  of  long  nose  pliers ; (9 ) several  open  end  wrenches ; 
(10)  one  tire  repair  outfit;  (11)  a wrench  for  spark 
plugs;  (12)  a wrench  for  hub  caps;  (13)  a wrench  for 
valve  caps,  and  (14)  an  offset  screw  driver. 

The  Implements  You  Need. — ( A ) A jack;  ( B ) an 
air  pump  for  inflating  tires;  (C)  a grease  gun;  ( D ) 
an  inspection  lamp ; ( E ) a tire  caliper ; (F)  a starting 
handle,  and  (G)  a set  of  tire  applying  levers,  or  irons. 

Supplies  That  Come  in  Handy. — (a)  Extra  fuses; 
(b)  an  ignition  resistance;  (c)  a fan  belt;  (d)  a can- 
vas, or  rubber  pail;  (e)  hose  for  the  air  pump;  (f)  a 
can  of  lubricating  oil ; (g)  a can  of  cup  grease ; (h)  bat- 
teries; (i)  insulated  wire;  (j)  spark  plugs;  (k)  valve 
springs;  (1)  cotton  waste;  (m)  one  extra  casing  in  a 


WHAT  YOU  CAN  FIX  ON  YOUR  CAR  153 


tire  cover  and  (n)  two  or  three  inner  tubes  well 
wrapped  and  put  in  a box  for  protection. 

How  to  Repair  a Tire  While  You  Wait. — Be 

sure  to  include  in  your  tire  repair  outfit  (1)  a box  of 


'permanent  puncture  plugs  and  (2)  either  a box  of  ce- 
mentless patches  or  Goodrich  self-vulcanizing  patches. 

Repairing  an  Inner  Tube. — For  Nail  Hole  Punc- 
tures.— A small  puncture  such  as  a nail  bole  can  be 
quickly  and  easily  fixed  by  using  a puncture  plug  as 
shown  at  A in  Fig.  69  ; push  the  plug  into  it  and  it  will 
seal  up  tight  without  the  use  of  cement. 

For  Small  Cuts  and  Punctures. — Where  there  are 


154  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


small  cuts  or  punctures  too  large  to  be  plugged,  then 
use  a self-vulcanizing  or  cementless  patch  as  shown  at 
B.  To  put  either  kind  on,  scour  the  tube  off  with  a bit 
of  waste  dipped  in  gasoline  all  around  the  hole  for  a cou- 
ple of  inches. 

Rub  the  cleaned  surface  with  emery  cloth  to  roughen 


Fig.  69. — Quick  repairs  for  the  road. 


it  and  clean  again  with  gasoline;  now  pull  the  muslin 
from  the  patch  and  rub  the  surface  of  it  with  a bit  of 
waste  soaked  in  gasoline ; this  done,  press  the  patch  flat 
on  the  tube  over  the  puncture  and  put  it  in  the  casing. 
If  it  is  a self-vulcanizing  patch  the  heat  developed  by 
running  will  vulcanize  it. 

For  Larger  Cuts  and  Punctures. — The  Goodrich  tire 
people  sell  what  they  call  a clinch  patching  outfit  and 
where  the  cuts  and  holes  are  too  large  or  ragged  to  be 
repaired  by  an  ordinary  patch  you  can  fix  it  with  far 
less  trouble  and  in  much  less  time  with  this  outfit 
than  if  you  carried  a portable  vulcanizing  set  with 
you. 


WHAT  YOU  CAN  FIX  ON  YOUR  CAR  155 


Repairing  a Cut  in  a Casing. — If  the  casing  is  cut  or 
has  a gash  in  it,  clean  the  dirt  out  with  a stiff  brush 
and  wash  it  clean  with  gasoline;  next  roll  up  a bit  of 
plastic 1 and  force  it  into  the  cut  until  it  is  even  with  the 
casing.  If  the  hole  is  a large  one  put  on  a thin  coat  of 
cement  first  and  then  force  in  the  plastic. 

Repairing  a Blown  Out  Casing. — If  the  blowout  is 
not  large  use  a blowout  patch  as  shown  at  C ; this  is 
made  of  duck  molded  to  the  shape  of  the  tire  and  is 
put  on  inside  of  the  casing  and  between  it  and  the  inner 
tube. 

The  tire  sleeve  is  made  of  rubber  and  fabric  and 
this  fits  over  the  outside  of  the  casing  and  is  held  fast  by 
hooks  under  the  bead,  or  rim ; it  is  shown  at  D.  Tire 
bands  are  made  of  leather  or  rubber  and  these  are  laced 
on  over  the  casing  as  shown  at  E.  Should  any  great  in- 
jury happen  to  either  your  inner  tubes  or  casings,  have 
them  vulcanized  by  some  reputable  repairer. 

Fixing  the  Radiator. — A Stuck  Radiator  Cap. — 
This  is  often  caused  by  the  heat  of  the  radiator  expand- 
ing the  ring  on  which  the  cap  screws.  Soak  a piece  of 
waste  in  cold  water  and  hold  it  on  the  ring  until  it 
cools  off,  being  careful  that  the  cap  is  not  cooled  off 
by  it. 

Stopping  Up  a Leak. — If  the  leak  is  small  it  can  he 
plugged  up  with  chewing  gum,  but  if  it  is  of  consider- 
able size  put  a cork  in  it,  that  is,  if  the  holes  are  getat- 
able;  solder  the  holes  up  as  soon  as  you  reach  your 
garage.  There  are  lots  of  fillers  on  the  market,  but  it  is 

111  Plastic”  is  the  trade  name  of  a tire  filler  and  it  can  be 
bought  at  any  supply  store. 


156  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


poor  practice  to  put  anything  into  the  radiator  for  this 
purpose. 

Leaks  in  the  Gasoline  Pipe. — If  the  leak  is  small  it 
can  he  stopped  by  plugging  up  the  hole  with  a bit  of 
common  brown  soap,  and  then  wrap  a piece  of  electri- 
cian’s tape  around  it  to  hold  it  in  place.  Another  way 
is  to  cut  a strip  of  inner  tube  about  two  inches  wide  and 
three  inches  long,  wrap  it  around  the  break  and  wind 
a layer  of  soft  iron  or  copper  wire  around  it. 

When  the  Water  Pump  Leaks. — If  the  leak  is 
at  the  joint  where  the  flanges  are  bolted  together  it 
shows  that  the  gasket  has  rotted  away;  tighten  up  the 
bolts  and  if  this  doesn’t  stop  it  drive  a thin,  sharp- 
pointed  stick  into  it,  then  when  you  get  home  put  in  a 
new  gasket. 

Putting  on  a New  Fan  Belt. — A fan  belt  is  liable 
to  break  any  time.  In  putting  on  a new  belt  the  best 
way  is  to  rivet  the  ends  together ; a laced  belt  is  almost 
sure  to  pull  apart  unless  it  is  done  by  a man  who  knows 
the  trick  of  it. 

Fixing  Spark  Plug  Troubles. — Leak  Around 

the  Spark  Plug. — If  a spark  plug  is  not  in  tight  enough 
the  leak  will  cause  a loss  in  compression.  You  can  tell 
if  there  is  a leak  by  squirting  some  oil  on  the  plug 
around  the  threads  when  the  leak  will  cause  it  to  bubble. 
If  the  leak  is  a bad  one  the  escaping  gas  will  make  a 
hissing  noise.  Screw  up  the  offending  plug  and  if 
it  still  leaks  it  shows  that  the  threads  are  worn  and 
the  way  to  ffx  it  is  to  put  in  a new  one. 

To  Clean  a Spark  Plug. — Scour  the  points  with  a 
toothbrush  dipped  in  gasoline.  If  the  soot  is  heavy, 


WHAT  YOU  CAN  FIX  ON  YOUR  CAR  157 


scrape  the  points  off  with  a knife  blade,  or  a spark-plug 
cleaner,  and  wash  them  out  with  alcohol  or  gasoline. 
If  the  deposit  is  very  heavy  use  a jeweler’s  file  and  file 
off  the  opposing  points  until  they  are  bright. 

To  Loosen  Screws  and  Nuts. — When  a screw  is 
hard  to  loosen  screw  a monkey  wrench  to  the  flat  blade 
of  a screw  driver  as  shown  at  A in  Fig.  70;  hold  it 


A TIGHT  SCREW  A LOCK  WASHER 

Fig.  70. — A couple  of  good  kinks. 

down  hard  with  your  left  hand  and  turn  the  wrench  with 
your  right.  This  will  give  you  the  extra  leverage  you 
need.  Always  use  the  largest  screw  driver  the  screw  will 
take. 

A nut  that  is  stuck  can  he  loosened  if  it  is  possible  to 
heat  it  a little;  if  not,  put  two  thin  wrenches  on  it  as 
shown  at  C and  the  extra  leverage  will  usually  be 
enough  to  loosen  it. 

How  to  Make  Nuts  Hold  Tight. — A nut  that  has  a 
tendency  to  work  loose  and  come  off  can  he  made  to  hold 
by  putting  on  a lock  washer , as  shown  at  B,  that  is,  a 
a spring  washer  under  it,  and  then  screwing  it  up  tight ; 
another  way  is  to  screw  a second  nut  on  top  of  the  first 


158  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


one.  To  absolutely  prevent  a screw  or  bolt  from 
loosening  it  is  possible,  in  some  places,  to  bore  a bole 
in  the  end  of  it  and  put  a cotter  pin  in  it. 

When  the  Clutch  Acts  Up. — A Clutch  That 
Slips. — When  you  have  trouble  with  a cone  clutch  that 
slips  it  is  because  the  leather  on  it  is  oil  soaked.  This 
may  be  remedied  temporarily  by  washing  off  the  leather 
with  gasoline  and  then  rubbing  some  fuller  s earth  well 
into  it. 

A Clutch  That  Binds. — A fierce  clutch,  as  it  is  called, 
is  caused  by  the  leather  becoming  too  dry;  it  can  be 
eased  up  by  rubbing  castor  or  neatsfoot  oil  on  it.  To 
properly  fix  the  clutch  the  adjusting  nuts  on  the  inside 
of  the  cone  should  be  screwed  in  or  out  as  the  case  may 
require. 

What  Not  to  Do. — Don’t  keep  on  running  along 
when  you  hear  a strance  noise  about  the  car,  but  stop 
and  find  out  exactly  what  causes  it.  Then  fix  it  right 
there ; run  into  the  nearest  garage  or  beat  it  back  home 
as  the  exigencies  of  the  case  may  demand. 

When  Your  Car  Is  in  the  Garage 

When  the  Valves  Need  Grinding. — How  to  Test 

the  Compression. — Unless  the  valve  heads  are  made  of 
tungsten  steel  the  heat  of  the  engine  will  warp  them 
and  this  makes  the  valves  leak,  when  of  course  the  com- 
pression will  be  poor. 

A more  common  cause  of  poor  compression  is  the  car- 
bon deposit  which  collects  on  the  valve  seat,  and  this  in 
turn  is  due  to  using  too  rich  a fuel  mixture,  or  too  much 


WHAT  YOU  CAN  FIX  ON  YOUR  CAR  159 


oil,  or  too  poor  a grade  of  the  latter.  When  the  loss  of 
compression  is  due  to  any  of  these  causes,  it  is  time  to 
grind  the  valves. 

To  know  when  this  is  really  needed,  crank  the  engine 
slowly  by  hand  and  you  can  easily  feel  if  there  is  a pis- 
ton that  works  with  too  little  resistance  on  the  compres- 
sion strokes  and  also  which  cylinder  it  is  in. 


GRINDING  TOOL 
IN  BITSTOCK 


VALVE  PIN 

POP 


A VALVE  REMOVER 
A RATCHET  HOLDS  IT  IN 
WHATEVER  POSITION 
IT  15  PLACED  LEAVING 
BOTH  HANDS  FREE  TO 
REMOVE  THE  VALVE  PIN 


SPRING  TC 
L/FT  YAL\  e. 


VALVE  HEAD 


PLUG  OF 
WASTE 
SEAT 


Fig.  71. — A and  B.  How  to  take  out  and  grind  a valve. 


How  to  Take  Out  the  Valves. — The  first  thing  to  do 
is  to  (a)  drain  off  the  water  from  the  cooling  system; 
(b)  take  off  the  cylinder  head ; do  not  disturb  the  wir- 
ing and  lay  it  in  a clean  place;  (c)  then  take  off  the 
valve  covers;  (d)  take  out  the  valve  by  using  a valve 
lifter  tool,  see  A Fig.  71,  and  (f)  put  a plug  of  waste 
in  the  port  between  the  valve  and  the  cylinder  as  shown 
at  B in  Fig.  71,  to  keep  the  abrasive  from  falling  in- 
side and  cutting  the  piston  and  cylinder. 

How  to  Grind  the  Valves. — Get  or  make  a grinding 


160  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


paste  of  fine  emery,  No.  120,  or  ground  glass,  and  oil 
— you  can  buy  it  ready  made — and  tbin  a little  of  it 
down  with  a few  drops  of  kerosene  and  lubricating 
oil. 

Rub  the  mixture  on  the  bevel  edge  of  the  valve  seat 
with  your  finger,  then  set  the  valve  head  in  the  seat 
and  turn  it  around  to  and  fro  with  a grinding  tool  set 
in  the  chuck  of  an  ordinary  brace  as  shown  at  B,  with 
just  enough  pressure  to  hold  the  valve  in  the  seat. 

Lift  the  valve  from  its  seat  from  time  to  time  so  that 
the  abrasive  will  be  equally  distributed  over  the  bev- 
eled edges,  and  do  not  turn  the  valve  more  than  a quar- 
ter way  around  at  a time  or  you  will  be  very  apt  to 
scratch  the  edge  of  the  valve  seat.  Don’t  forget  to  take 
out  the  waste  when  you  are  through. 

How  to  Tell  When  a Valve  Is  Seated  Right. — To  tell 
when  the  valve  you  are  grinding  seats  properly,  wipe 
the  abrasive  off  clean  and  mark  the  beveled  edge  with  a 
soft  lead  pencil  as  shown  at  A in  Fig.  72.  Now  seat  the 
valve  and  turn  it  back  and  forth ; if  all  the  pencil  marks 
are  rubbed  off  you  will  know  the  valve  fits  the  seat 
perfectly ; if  not,  continue  the  grinding  operation.  This 
is  a far  better  test  than  to  use  Prussian  blue. 

Stretching  and  Replacing  Valve  Springs. — 
When  a valve  spring  is  weak,  especially  if  it  is  an  ex- 
haust valve  spring,  the  engine  will  not  run  with  its  ac- 
customed smoothness;  this  is  caused  by  a part  of  the 
compressed  fuel  charge  escaping,  which  of  course  weak- 
ens the  effect  of  the  explosion. 

To  detect  a weak  valve  spring  put  the  blade  of  a screw 
driver  between  the  coils  of  the  spring  while  the  engine 


WHAT  YOU  CAN  FIX  ON  YOUR  CAR  161 


is  running.  If  the  engine  runs  faster  or  smoother  it 
shows  that  the  spring  is  weak  and  needs  stretching  or, 
better,  a new  one. 

To  stretch  a spring  remove  it  from  the  valve  stem, 


L£AD  PfMOl  /7/?RK 5 


ilium 

f\ 

l 

r 

Fig.  72. — A.  Testing  the  seating  of  a valve.  B.  Stretching  a 
valve  spring. 

put  the  blade  of  a large  screw  driver  between  the  first 
two  coils  at  one  end  and  turn  the  screw  driver 
on  it  just  as  you  would  a nut  on  a screw  as  shown  at  B. 
This  will  stretch  all  parts  of  the  spring  equally. 


162  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


To  Remove  Carbon  from  the  Cylinders. — You 

can  tell  when  there  is  carhon  in  the  cylinders  by  the  en- 
gine backfiring,  by  knocking  and  by  a lack  of  power 
when  taking  a hill  on  high  gear. 

To  remove  the  carhon  deposit  take  off  the  cylinder 
head  and  take  out  the  inlet  and  the  exhaust  valve  caps ; 


Fig.  73. — Scraping  out  the  carbon. 


now  turn  the  crank  shaft  over  until  the  pistons  you  want 
to  clean  are  at  their  top  dead  centers  when  you  can 
reach  the  heads  of  the  pistons  as  shown  in  Fig.  73. 
You  can  buy  scraping  tools  especially  formed  to  enable 
you  to  get  at  the  piston  heads  and  cylinder  walls  in  the 
easiest  way. 

When  all  of  the  carbon  is  scraped  loose  turn  the  crank 
shaft  until  the  exhaust  valve  of  the  cylinder  you  are 
working  on  lifts  and  then  scrape  the  carbon  into  the 
exhaust  passage;  now  when  the  engine  is  started  the 
carbon  will  be  forced  out  by  the  exhaust  gases.  To  be 


WHAT  YOU  CAN  FIX  ON  YOUR  CAR  163 


sure  that  none  of  the  loose  carbon  sticks  between  the 
valve  head  and  its  seat,  brush  them  carefully  and  wash 
clean  with  kerosene. 

Putting  in  New  Piston  Rings. — To  take  of  vorn 
piston  rings  easily  you  can  get  a tool  made  for  the  pur- 
pose, or  a pointed  tool  can  be  used  to  lift  the  erd  of  the 
ring  from  the  groove. 

Two  kinds  of  piston  rings  are  used  and  these  are  (1) 
cast  iron  rings  and  (2)  soft  steel  rings.  An  iron  ring 
can  be  expanded  and  then  slipped  over  the  head  of  the 
piston  into  its  groove  or  seat.  To  insert  a steel  ring 
lay  it  on  the  head  of  the  piston  and  press  down  on  one 
end  until  it  slips  into  the  groove,  but  do  not  expand  it ; 
this  done,  work  the  ring  around  as  though  you  were 
screwing  it  into  the  groove. 

If  it  is  to  go  into  the  second  or  third  groove,  thread 
the  end  into  the  next  groove  and  screw  it  around  as  be- 
fore. In  putting  on  the  rings  be  mighty  careful  not  to 
dent  or  kink  them. 

How  to  Adjust  the  Brakes. — If  the  brake  rods 
get  out  of  adjustment  the  brake  hands  and  the  drums 
may  make  contact  with  each  other;  this  causes  the 
brakes  to  drag  and  hence  there  is  a loss  of  power. 

Always  adjust  the  brakes  on  the  road  so  that  they  will 
pull  equally  on  both  sides,  for  if  the  brake  on  one  side 
or  the  other  drags,  the  car  will  have  a tendency  to  skid. 
The  brakes  can  be  tightened  up  by  means  of  tumbuckles 
on  the  brake  pull  rods,  and  they  can  be  adjusted  by 
means  of  nuts  at  the  after  ends  of  the  brake  rods. 

How  to  Make  Good  Gaskets. — A gasket  is  a 
thin,  flat  ring  or  other  shaped  piece  of  packing  made  of 


164  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


rubber,  leather  or  other  material  and  this  is  placed  be- 
tween two  flanges  which  are  bolted  together  to  make 
a water-  or  a gas-tight  joint. 

Gaskets  made  of  ordinary  rubber  packing  are  of  lit- 
tle service  in  gasoline  engine  construction,  for  hot  water 
rots  and  the  hot  gases  bum  them  away.  It  is  better  to 
use  asbestos  packing  which  has  a brass  or  bronze  wire 
mesh. 

After  marking  out  the  shape  of  the  gasket  needed 
on  the  asbestos  packing,  using  either  the  flange  itself 
or  a paper  template  for  a pattern,  you  can  go  ahead  and 
cut  it  out  with  a cold  chisel  and  a hammer. 

Replacing  Broken  Parts.  — Every  motor  car 
company  issues  a Price  List  of  Parts,  and  you  should 
have  one  of  these  lists  so  that  immediately  a part  is 
broken  on  your  car  you  can  find  the  correct  name,  the 
number  and  the  cost  of  it,  and  you  can  send  direct  to 
the  factory  for  it  if  you  want  to. 

You  will  be  able  to  make  almost  any  small  replace- 
ment yourself,  but  if  it  is  some  large  part  that  is  broken, 
you  can  let  the  machinist  send  for  it  and,  knowing  the 
price,  he  can’t  overcharge  you,  at  least  for  the  material. 


CHAPTER  XI 


WHEN  YOU  NEED  A MACHINIST 

Again  taking  it  for  granted  that  you  are  like  the  great 
majority  of  motorists  in  that  you  are  not  a natural  bom 
meehanie  and  further  that  you  have  neither  the  time, 
the  inclination  nor  the  equipment  to  make  a repair  of 
the  more  difficult  kind,  the  next  best  thing  to  know  is 
when  you  really  need  a machinist. 

When  You  Have  a Breakdown  on  the  Road.— 
Should  some  part  actually  break  when  you  are  on  the 
road  and  your  car  lie  down  on  you — though  you  may 
be  on  top  of  it — don’t  give  up  the  bumboat , for  where 
there’s  life  there  are  a lot  of  alternatives  (correct,  ac- 
cording to  John  Stuart  Mill  and  Gladstone). 

And  here  are  a few  of  them:  (1)  wait  for  a passing 
driver,  or  a chauffeur,  to  help  you  out;  (2)  telephone 
to  the  nearest  sales  agent  who  handles  your  make  of 
car  and  have  him  send  his  service  man  to  you;  (3)  walk 
to  the  nearest  garage  and  get  a trouble  shooter  to  go 
back  with  you,  and  (4)  drink  an  auto  cocktail,  i.  e.,  a 
glass  of  gasoline  with  a dash  of  oil  and  a nut  in  it  and 
it  will  put  enough  pep  in  you  so  that  you’ll  think  you’re 
going  home  at  a speed  of  50  miles  an  hour. 

How  if  you  let  every  willing  man-at-the- wheel  that 
comes  along  tinker  with  your  car  it  won’t  cost  you  any- 
thing, but  it  won’t  be  worth  a tinker’s  dam  either  when 

165 


166  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


they  get  through  with  it ; on  the  other  hand,  if  you  send 
for  an  expert  you  must  expect  to  pay  Charlie  Chaplin’s 
price  for  the  service  rendered,  and,  finally,  if  you  follow 
the  last  horrible  example  you’ll  never  get  to  the  office 
next  morning  in  time  to  open  the  mail.  The  answer 
is,  know  to  a dead  certainty  that  you  can’t  fix  your  car 
yourself  before  you  call  in  outside  help. 

After  Your  Car  Is  in  the  Shop. — About  60  cents 
an  hour  is  the  rate  usually  charged  at  a garage  machine 
shop  for  the  time  of  a skilled  mechanic  while  he  is 
working  on  your  car. 

And  this  would  not  be  half-bad  if  he  worked  all  of 
the  time  on  your  car  that  you  are  charged  up  with,  but 
instead  he  helps  Bill  tighten  a nut  on  that  dinky  road- 
ster next  to  him  and  shows  Jim  how  to  set  the  timing 
gears  on  that  big  berlin  over  there. 

Besides,  he  has  to  answer  a couple  of  dozen  questions 
which  everyone  asks  him  from  the  boss  on  down  to  the 
washer  and  when  he  hasn’t  anything  else  to  do  he  spins 
a yarn  or  two  just  to  pass  the  time  away — your  time — 
and  the  time  stamp  ticks  merrily  on  and  you  can’t  dis- 
pute its  record. 

The  only  way  to  get  40-60  is  to  make  the  boss  ma- 
chinist give  you  a fiat  rate,  that  is,  fix  a price  for  the 
labor  to  be  done,  then  at  least  you’ll  know  in  advance 
what  you’ll  have  to  pay  and  this  way  is  always  the 
cheapest  in  the  end.  Of  course  if  he  won’t  make  a flat 
rate  then  you’ll  have  to  do  like  the  other  three-fourths 
of  the  car  owners,  and  this  is  to  suffer  in  silence. 

Then  there  are  the  parts  needed  to  make  the  repairs 
and  here  again  unless  you  know  exactly  what  the  re- 


WHEN  YOU  NEED  A MACHINIST  167 


placements  are  and  what  they  cost,  your  hill  will  he  in- 
itiated until  you  feel  like  going  straight  up  and  wish 
all  the  others  would  go  straight  down.  And  now  I’ll 
turn  you  over  to  some  kindly  disposed  garage  foreman 
for  your  shop  repairs. 

Work  on  the  Front  Axle. — When  the  front  axle 
gets  bent  it  should  be  straightened  cold,  though  the 
common  practice  is  to  heat  it  and  then  straighten  it, 
which  is  much  easier.  If  the  axle  is  broken  it  can  be 
welded  together  cheaper  than  you  can  buy  a new  one. 

Straightening-  the  Frame. — If  you  should  be  so 
careless  as  to  let  some  other  car  run  into  you  and  the 
frame  of  your  car  is  bent  it  can  be  straightened  by  heat- 
ing it  with  an  oxy-acetylene  torch  and  hammering  it 
back  into  shape.  Both  the  axle  and  frame  are  made 
of  heat-treated  steel  and  when  they  are  heated  to  be 
straightened  they  are  never  quite  as  strong  as  before. 

Repairing  the  Radiator. — When  a radiator  is 
jammed  and  leaks  badly  it  takes  a radiator  specialist 
and  a shop  where  there  is  a tank  of  water  and  an  air 
compressor  to  test  it  and  then  a bath  of  melted  solder 
to  dip  it  in  in  order  to  get  a really  satisfactory  job 
done. 

Timing  the  Valves. — To  time  the  valves  of  an  en- 
gine so  that  it  will  deliver  its  maximum  power  is  gen- 
erally a job  that  should  be  intrusted  to  an  automobile 
machinist  who  knows  his  business.  Especially  is  this 
true  if  your  engine  is  a 6,  8 or  a 12  cylinder  model, 
for  it  requires  a pretty  intimate  knowledge  of  valve 
timing  to  do  it  the  right  way. 

Adjusting  the  Connecting  Rod  Bearings. — The 


168  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


oil  must  be  drawn  off  and  tbe  oil  pan  taken  off  of  the 
engine  so  that  the  crank  shaft  and  connecting  rod  can 
be  reached.  The  connecting  rod  bolts  have  to  be  loos- 
ened and  one  or  more  of  the  thin  metal  strips,  called 
liners , or,  in  the  parlance  of  the  machinist,  shims,  must 
be  taken  out  from  between  the  hearing  caps — an  equal 
number  from  both  sides — until  the  proper  adjustment 
is  had.  To  make  the  crank-pin  of  the  shaft  fit  the  bear- 
ings accurately  the  latter  must  be  scraped  and  this  is  a 
job  that  takes  a real  machinist  the  best  part  of  a day  to 
do. 

The  bearings  must  not  be  made  too  tight,  but  the  nuts 
on  the  bolts  which  hold  them  together  must  be  put  on 
tight  or  there  may  be  a couple  of  hundred  dollars’  worth 
of  damage  done  in  a couple  of  seconds.  New  bearings 
can  be  bought  already  made,  so  don’t  let  a machinist 
tell  you  that  he  has  to  cast  them. 

Adjusting  the  Crank  Shaft  Bearings. — Always 
have  a machinist  adjust  the  crank  shaft  bearings  because 
it  is  a most  particular  job.  The  oil  pan  must  be  taken 
off  as  before  and  the  flywheel  jacked  up;  the  nuts  must 
be  unscrewed  from  the  bearing  caps  and  enough  shims 
taken  out  on  both  sides  to  bring  the  caps  close  enough 
together  to  make  them  fit  the  crank  shaft  journal,  and 
if  needs  be  these  must  be  scraped. 

The  bearings  must  not  be  too  tight,  but  they  must  be 
bolted  in  tight.  New  bearings  can  be  bought  from  the 
maker  of  your  car.  Should  your  engine  begin  to  knock, 
if  it  is  the  wrist-pin , or  gudgeon  pin  to  give  it  its  right 
name,  connecting  rod  or  the  main  bearings  that  cause 
it,  you  must  have  them  taken  care  of  at  once. 


WHEN  YOU  NEED  A MACHINIST  169 


Regrinding  and  Reboring  Cylinders. — -When  a 
cylinder  becomes  worn  by  tbe  angular  pressure  of  tbe 
piston  on  its  lower  stroke,  or  it  has  been  scored  by  a 
broken  piston  ring,  it  must  be  reground  or  rebored,  or 
else  a whole  new  block  of  cylinders  must  be  put  in,  and 
tbe  latter  is  often  tbe  cheapest  and  it  is  certainly  tbe 
best  way. 

To  regrind  tbe  cylinders  an  emery  wheel  so  mounted 
that  it  is  carried  automatically  around  on  tbe  inside  wall 
of  tbe  cylinder  is  used.  To  rebore  tbe  cylinders,  either 
an  engine  lathe  or  a reboring  machine  is  used.  Some 
repair  shops  have  what  is  called  a rehoring  tool  for  re- 
boring  small  cylinders  and  with  which  a very  ordinary 
mechanic  can  do  quite  an  accurate  job. 

Don’t  let  anyone  induce  you  to  have  the  cylinders 
reground  or  rebored  unless  he  shows  you  with  a pair 
of  micrometer  calipers  that  they  actually  need  it,  and 
then  figure  the  cost  of  the  job  as  against  a new  block  of 
cylinders. 

Rebrazing  Loose  Parts. — By  brazing  is  meant  the 
joining  of  two  pieces  of  metal  with  hard  solder.  The 
rear  axle  housings  and  torsion  tubes  of  many  cars  are 
riveted  and  then  brazed.  Once  in  a while  the  vibration, 
of  the  rear  axle  jars  the  brazing  loose  and  this  not  only 
lets  the  grease  leak  out,  but  if  it  is  not  rebrazed  at  once 
the  rivets  are  liable  to  give  way  under  the  strain  and 
then  the  housing  will  have  to  be  re-riveted. 

Welding  Broken  Parts. — "When  a large  metal  part 
breaks  it  is  usually  much  cheaper  to  have  it  welded 
than  it  is  to  buy  a new  one.  By  welding  is  meant  the 
joining  of  two  pieces  of  metal  by  heating  them  until 


170  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


they  are  soft  and  then  forcing  the  ends  or  edges  of  the 
pieces  together. 

There  are  two  processes  used,  for  welding  and  these 
are  (1)  the  oxy-acetylene  process  and  (2)  the  electric 
process.  In  the  oxy-acetylene  process  acetylene  gas  and 
oxygen  gas  are  mixed  in  a torch  and  the  flame  produces 
a white,  or  welding  heat.  In  the  electric  process  a heavy 
electric  current  heats  the  metal  at  the  junction  to  the 
welding  temperature.  In  either  process  when  the  weld- 
ing temperature  is  reached  pressure  is  applied  and 
this  joins  the  soft  parts  into  a complete  union,  or  weld  as 
it  is  called. 

Rims,  brake  levers,  crank,  propeller  and  cam  shafts, 
connecting,  steering,  brake  and  extension  rods,  step  and 
lamp  brackets,  steering  levers  and  knuckles,  axles  and 
yokes,  valve  heads  to  stems,  anchor  bolts,  broken  cast- 
ings and  forgings  of  any  kind,  and  cracked  cylinders 
and  jackets  can  all  be  welded  as  good  as  new,  nearly. 

Putting  New  Leather  on  the  Clutch. — When  the 
leather  on  the  clutch  is  worn  down  so  far  that  it  will 
not  hold  after  it  has  been  fully  expanded  by  the  adjust- 
ing nuts,  it  is  time  to  have  a new  leather  put  on,  and  it 
takes  a good  man  to  do  a good  job. 

As  the  old  leather  is  riveted  to  the  steel  cone  the  riv- 
ets have  to  be  cut  off  inside  with  a cold  chisel  and  when 
a new  leather  is  riveted  on,  it  must  not  only  hold  tight 
but  it  must  be  perfectly  smooth  and  the  rivets  must  be 
sunk  lower  than  the  surface  of  the  leather,  a courder- 
bore  being  used  to  enlarge  the  holes.  A new  leather 
cut  to  shape  and  size  can  be  bought  from  the  factory. 
Fixing  the  Steering  Gear. — The  steering  gear 


WHEN  YOU  NEED  A MACHINIST  171 


will  remain  in  adjustment  for  a long  time,  but  finally 
it  will  begin  to  show  the  effects  of  wear  and  tbe  steer- 
ing wheel  will  have  too  much  play  or  back  lash  as  it  is 
called ; it  is  all  right  for  a steering  wheel  to  have  a cou- 
ple of  inches  play,  for  it  steers  better  than  when  it 
only  has  a play  of  about  one  inch. 

To  adjust  the  play  the  front  part  of  the  car  has  to 
be  jacked  up  and  the  adjusting  nuts  can  then  be  tight- 
ened up.  The  bushing  must  also  be  adjusted  and  there 
are  a lot  of  other  things  that  must  be  done;  con- 
sequently it  is  the  better  way  to  let  a man  who  draws 
a salary  as  an  expert  fix  it  for  you. 

Taking  Care  of  the  Universal  Joints. — It  is  not 
very  often  that  the  pins  of  the  universal  joints  break, 
for  the  shearing  stresses  to  which  they  are  subjected 
are  carefully  calculated  and  to  this  is  added  a large 
safety  factor.  After  long  usage,  however,  the  bushings 
may  become  worn,  when  of  course  they  should  be  re- 
newed. 

About  the  Transmission  Gears. — The  transmis- 
sion ought  to  be  looked  into  at  least  every  season  and 
the  gears  cleaned. 

If  any  of  the  gears  are  worn  too  much  or  are  stripped 
new  ones  will  have  to  be  put  in.  In  ordering  new  gears 
try  to  get  nickel  heat-treated  steel  gears,  as  those 
made  of  carbon  steel  and  case  hardened  will  give  you 
poor  service.  Occasionally  the  linkage  between  the  gear 
shift  lever  and  the  sliding  block  gets  out  of  adjustment 
and  this  must  be  attended  to. 

A Twisted  or  Broken  Propeller  Shaft. — If  the 
shaft  is  of  ordinary  carbon  steel  it  may  be  sheared  off 


172  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


through,  some  defect  in  the  steel,  but  if  it  is  of  vanadium 
steel  it  will  twist  when  the  stress  becomes  too  great. 
If  the  shaft  is  broken  it  can  be  welded  together,  hut  if 
it  is  twisted  it  can  easily  be  straightened  and  it  should 
be  straightened  cold  or  its  hardness  will  be  destroyed. 

Testing  the  Differential.— The  differential  should 
be  tested  every  season  and  you  can  do  this  yourself  as 
follows:  jack  up  both  rear  wheels  so  that  they  will 
run  freely;  place  the  gear  shift  lever  in  one  of  the 
speed  notches;  now  release  the  emergency  brake  and 
turn  one  wheel  one  way  and  one  the  other,  and  if  they 
turn  in  opposite  directions  freely  it  is  all  right,  other- 
wise it  is  all  wrong  and  must  be  overhauled. 

If  the  differential  is  kept  well  lubricated  it  will  be  a 
long  time  before  any  play  or  backlash  in  the  gears  will 
be  noticeable.  The  joint  pins  in  the  propeller  shaft 
may  wear  down  until  they  get  loose  and  this  will  pro- 
duce a knock  in  the  differential.  New  pins  cost  very 
little,  but  the  cost  of  the  labor  of  putting  them  in  will 
make  the  bill  large  enough  to  suit  you.  Should  the 
gears  strip  have  chrome  nickel  heat-treated  steel  gears 
put  in  if  possible. 

Relining  the  Brakes. — When  the  brake  linings 
get  worn  so  that  they  will  not  hold  they  must  he  re- 
placed. The  brake  linings  are  made  of  asbestos  fiber 
and  this  is  riveted  onto  the  steel  brake  bands.  To 
take  off  the  old  brake  linings  the  rivets  have  to  be  cut 
off  with  a cold  chisel.  The  Johns-Manville  Company, 
41st  Street  and  Madison  Avenue,  New  York,  makes  a 
good  line  of  brake  linings. 

Overhauling  Your  Car. — And  now  finally  to  keep 


WHEN  YOU  NEED  A MACHINIST  173 


your  ear  good  as  new  and  in  fine  running  order  the 
engine  should  be  overhauled  every  three  years.  This 
means  that  you  will  put  your  car  in  the  hands  of  an 
automobile  machinist  and  he  will  go  over  every  part 
of  it  carefully  and  see  that  every  nut  is  tight,  that  all 
the  parts  are  in  adjustment  and  that  all  the  bearings 
are  in  good  shape. 

The  best  time  to  have  your  car  overhauled  is  in  the 
winter,  for  then  the  repair  shops  are  not  so  busy,  hence 
the  machinists  will  take  more  pains  and  the  job  will  cost 
you  less  than  if  you  wait  until  the  vernal  equinox , to  wit, 
the  coming  of  spring,  to  do  it. 


CHAPTER  XII 


HOW  TO  RUN  YOUR  CAR  AT  THE  LEAST  COST 

To  get  the  best  service  and  the  most  mileage  out  of 
a car  at  the  least  possible  cost  you  must  begin  to  think 
about  economy  before  you  ever  buy  one.  And  then 
after  you  become  the  proud  possessor  of  the  coveted 
machine  you  must  take  the  proper  care  of  it,  for 
eternal  vigilance  is  also  the  price  of  economical  opera- 
tion. 

On  Extra  Seating  Capacity.— I didn’t  mention  it 
over  there  in  the  first  chapter  on  How  to  Buy  a Car,  be- 
cause it  was  too  near  the  front  of  the  book  for  such 
an  elemental  and  sordid  suggestion  and  I don’t  want 
you  to  follow  it  unless  you  really  have  to. 

But  to  get  down  to  brass  tacks  one  of  the  most  ex- 
pensive things  that  the  ordinary  motor  car  owner  goes 
up  against  is  to  have  a five,  or  a seven  seated  car  when 
there  are  only  two  or  three  in  the  family.  To  hard 
from  one  to  five  extra  passengers  every  time  you  take 
a spin  or  make  a trip  is  a mighty  costly  piece  of  business 
and  to  have  the  extra  seating  capacity  and  then  not  do 
it  makes  a fellow  feel  pretty  cheap  and  puts  him  in 
the  tightwad  class  among  his  less  fortunate  neighbors. 

If  yours  is  a family  of  two  or  three  it  will  save  you 
more  dollars  than  you  would  ever  believe  to  have  a 
car  just  large  enough  to  seat  them  and  then  there  are 

174 


HOW  TO  RUN  CAR  AT  LEAST  COST  175 


no  hard  feelings,  for  no  one  expects  you  to  do  the  hand- 
some thing.  Of  course  if  you  have  a safety  deposit  box 
full  of  first  and  refunding  5 per  cent  gold  bonds,  Series 
A of  the  United  States  Rubber  Co.,  and  you  are  a phi- 
lanthropist to  hoot,  why  then  my  argument  falls  flat. 

What  Speed  Economy  Means. — Over  in  the  first 
chapter  I also  told  you  to  drive  your  car  to  the  limit 
for  the  first  three  months,  but  you  will  recollect  that 
I did  not  say  to  drive  it  like  a speed  demon. 

To  speed  up  your  car  to  30  miles  an  hour  or  faster 
means  that  you  will  increase  the  cost  of  running  it 
rather  than  to  economize  in  its  operation;  indeed,  it  is 
far  better  to  keep  an  even  speed  of  say  20  to  25  miles 
an  hour,  especially  if  your  car  is  a small  one. 

Running  at  high  speed  is  not  only  hard  on  the  car  but 
it  very  often  results  disastrously,  and  for  the  average 
person  it  is  neither  conducive  to  pleasure  nor  to  eco- 
nomical motoring. 

How  Tire  Economy  Is  Had. — The  Size  of  Tires 
to  Use. — It  is  the  cheapest  way  in  the  long  run  to  use 
the  largest  casings  that  can  be  put  on  the  wheels  of  your 
car. 

Suppose  as  an  illustration  the  wheels  of  your  car  take 
32  x 314  inch  casings,  then  it  will  take  32  x 4 inch 
casings,  and  though  the  latter  cost  a little  more,  they 
will  stand  up  under  the  wear  and  tear  at  least  a third 
better. 

By  all  means  use  the  oversize  on  the  rear  wheels 
where  the  friction  is  the  greatest.  When  the  rear  cas- 
ings are  pretty  well  worn  transfer  them  to  the  front 
wheels  where  the  friction  is  not  nearly  as  great.  And 


176  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


always  use  a non-skid  tread  because  the  tractive  effort 
is  better. 

The  Proper  Inflation  of  Tires. — Always  keep  the 
tires  pumped  up  bard ; it  is  when  tbe  tires  are  soft  that 


Fig.  74. — A and  B Tire  inflation. 


tbe  rubber  is  cut  away,  and  punctures  and  blowouts  hap- 
pen. Keep  your  tires  inflated  with  a pressure  of  20 
pounds  per  square  inch  of  cross  section  when  they  are 
hot,  that  is,  a 4-inch  tire  should  be  pumped  up  to  80 
pounds  pressure.  The  best  way  to  gauge  the  pressure 
is  with  a tire  caliper,  see  Eig.  74,  as  this  is  easier 
to  use  and  more  accurate  than  a pressure  gauge.  Stick 


HOW  TO  RUN  CAR  AT  LEAST  COST  177 


to  the  following  inflation  table,  winter  and  summer, 
and  your  tires  will  be  right : 


3 inch  tires 
3V2  inch  tires 

4 inch  tires 
4^/2  inch  tires 

5 inch  tires 
5V2  inch  tires 

6 inch  tires 


60  pounds  pressure 
70  pounds  pressure 
80  pounds  pressure 
90  pounds  pressure 
100  pounds  pressure 
110  pounds  pressure 
120  pounds  pressure 


If  you  have  neither  tire  calipers  nor  pressure  gauge, 
pump  up  the  tires  until  they  stand  up  straight  under  the 
weight  of  the  car  when  there  are  no  passengers  in  it. 
And  don’t  forget  that  90  per  cent  of  all  tire  trouble  is 
due  to  under-inflation. 

How  to  Be  Good  to  Your  Tires.— As  you  value  a 
two-dollar  bill,  don’t  put  the  brakes  on  suddenly,  for 
this  locks  the  wheels,  slides  them  over  the  roadbed  and 
scrapes  off  both  the  rubber  and  fabric  as  shown  at  A 
in  Fig.  75. 

And  here  are  a few  extra  donts  which,  if  you  heed 
them,  will  save  you  many  extra  dollars.  (1)  Don’t 
drive  fast  around  comers  and  (2)  don’t  start  or  stop 
too  quickly,  for  the  first  causes  the  wheels  to  skid, 
and  the  second  makes  them  slide.  (3)  Don’t  let  your 
brakes  get  out  of  adjustment  or  an  extra  strain  will  be 
put  on  one  of  the  tires  and  (4)  don’t  let  your  wheels 
get  out  of  alignment  or  your  tires  will  soon  be  ground 
to  pieces. 

(5)  Don’t  throw  in  your  clutch  too  quickly  as  this 
puts  a great  strain  on  your  tires  and  (6)  don’t  drive  in 
the  car  tracks  as  they  scrape  the  rubber  off  the  sides 


178  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


of  the  casings.  (7)  Don’t  let  oil  stay  on  the  tires,  as 
it  rots  them,  and  (8)  don’t  let  them  stand  in  the  water 
for  the  same  reason.  (9)  Don’t  let  the  tires  remain  in 
a place  that  is  more  than  55  or  less  than  40  degrees 
Fahrenheit,  as  both  heat  and  cold  deteriorate  the  rub- 
ber, and  (10)  don’t  let  the  tires  stay  in  the  light  when 


Fig.  75. — Abused  tires. 


they  are  not  to  be  used  for  some  time,  for  this  also 
has  an  untoward  effect  on  the  rubber. 

(11)  Don’t  let  the  weight  of  the  car  rest  on  the  tires 
if  it  is  not  in  use,  but  jack  it  up,  and  (12)  when  you 
take  the  tires  off  wrap  the  casings  in  strips  of  paper, 
muslin  or  burlap.  (13)  Don’t  take  the  inner  tubes  out 
of  the  casings  when  putting  them  away,  but  pump 
enough  air  into  them  to  keep  them  round,  and  (14)  don’t 
put  on  the  tires  until  you  have  scraped  off  all  the  rust. 


HOW  TO  RUN  CAR  AT  LEAST  COST  179 


cleaned  the  rims  thoroughly  and  given  them  a coat  of 
shellac. 

On  the  Use  of  Chains. — Any  chain  will  injure  a tire 
but  some  chains  are  more  injurious  than  others.  Never 
fasten  the  chains  to  the  spokes,  hut  let  them  run  loosely, 
for  the  least  injury  results  from  chains  that  have  play 
enough  to  work  around  the  tire  as  this  distributes  the 
strain  to  all  parts  equally.  See  B,  Pig.  75. 

Keep  Your  Tires  in  Repair. — (1)  Inspect  the  tires 
after  every  run  for  small  cuts  and  fill  them  with  plastic 
as  shown  at  C;  (2)  cuts,  bruises  and  punctures  of  any 
size  should  be  immediately  vulcanized  and  (3)  when  you 
put  on  the  tires  use  plenty  of  soapstone  between  the 
tubes  and  the  casings,  as  this  greatly  lessens  the  friction 
between  them  and  keeps  them  cool. 

About  Buying  New  Tires. — Nearly  all  tire  compa- 
nies guarantee  their  tires  for  5,000  miles  against  blow- 
outs, blisters  and  rim-cutting,  but  usually  there  is  so 
much  red  tape  and  so  many  strings  to  the  guarantee 
that  it  isn’t  worth  anything.  The  best  guarantee  is  to 
buy  good  tires  in  the  first  place. 

Now  there  are  many  good  tires  on  the  market,  but 
from  experience  I can  say  use  Goodrich  tires — especial- 
ly their  Silvertown  cord  tires — or  United  States  tires 
and  you  can’t  go  wrong. 

Practicing  Economy  in  the  Water  System. — To 

keep  the  engine  at  a temperature  where  it  will  work 
with  the  highest  efficiency,  see  that  the  radiator  is  full 
of  clean  water;  there  is  a strainer  in  every  radiator 
filler  and  always  pour  the  water  through  it. 

Drain  off  the  old  water  once  a month  through  the  drain 


180  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


cock,  flush,  out  the  radiator  with  the  garden  hose  every 
three  months  and  clean  out  the  water  ackets  every 
year.  Water  system  economy  costs  nothing  but  it  will 
save  you  a great  deal. 

How  Fuel  Economy  Is  Obtained. — There  are 
three  things  that  make  for  fuel  economy,  that  is,  the 
highest  mileage  per  gallon  of  gasoline  used,  and  these 
are  (1)  to  always  use  a good  uniform  grade  of  gaso- 
line; (2)  to  have  the  carburetor  adjusted  to  give  the 
right  fuel  mixture,  and  (3)  preheating  the  gasoline  or 
the  fuel  mixture. 

To  get  a good  uniform  grade  of  gasoline  buy  either 
Gulf,  Texas  or  Standard  Oil  Company’s  gasoline ; there 
are  doubtless  other  equally  good  grades  on  the  market, 
but  I know  the  ones  I have  named  above  to  be  all  right. 
If  there  is  an  agent  in  your  vicinity  who  sells  the  make 
of  carburetor  you  are  using,  have  him  adjust  it  should 
the  engine  seem  to  fall  off  in  power.  Heating  the  gaso- 
line or  the  fuel  mixture  is  the  great  economizer,  so  have 
a preheater  put  on  your  carburetor. 

How  to  Secure  Ignition  Economy. — Whether 
you  use  a battery  or  a magneto,  see  that  the  timer  is 
in  adjustment  and  keep  the  spark  plugs  clean. 

If  the  ignition  current  is  generated  by  a magneto  and 
the  spark  will  not  jump  a full  Yg  inch,  send  the  magneto 
to  the  nearest  service  station  of  the  maker  and  have  it 
fixed.  A weak  spark  will  cause  much  loss  of  power. 

When  the  battery  system  is  used  go  to  bed  with  the 
battery  on  your  mind.  If  you  would  hold  whatever 
small  change  you  have,  then  (1)  keep  the  plates  covered 
by  the  battery  solution,  (2)  keep  the  battery  as  fully 


HOW  TO  RUN  CAR  AT  LEAST  COST  181 


charged  as  possible  and  (3)  have  the  specific  gravity 
of  the  battery  from  1.275  to  1.300;  as  long  as  the  bat- 
tery is  fully  charged  it  can’t  freeze,  and  when  you  put 
your  car  away  either  turn  the  battery  over  to  a service 
station  or  give  it  a fresh  charge  once  a month  without 
fail.  By  remembering  these  things  you  will  have  igni- 
tion economy  with  a big  E. 

How  Oil  Economy  Is  Worked— The  necessity 

for  using  the  best  oils  and  grease  was  pointed  out  in  the 
chapter  on  How  the  Oiling  System  Works.  Above 
everything  else  see  to  it  that  your  car  is  properly  lu- 
bricated and  by  this  I not  only  mean  that  you  should 
use  only  the  very  best  quality  of  lubricants,  but  that 
you  should  never  make  a run  until  every  working  part 
of  the  car  is  fully  supplied  with  oil  and  grease. 

Your  instruction  book  will  tell  you  what  oils  and 
grease  you  should  use  and  your  lubricating  chart  will 
tell  you  where,  when  and  how  to  use  them.  If  you 
would  save  money  and  trouble  do  these  three  things,  (1) 
lubricate;  (2)  lubricate  and  (3)  lubricate.  And  don’t 
forget  that  when  running  over  country  roads  much 
more  oil  is  used  than  on  city  pavements  and  conse- 
quently supply  the  engine  with  additional  oil  and  turn 
up  the  grease  cups  often. 

About  Saving  on  Your  Starting  and  Lighting 
System. — As  you  have  seen  in  Chapter  IX  there  is  very 
little  chance  of  saving  anything  as  far  as  the  starting 
and  lighting  systems  are  concerned,  except  the  storage 
battery,  the  economical  operation  of  which  was  briefly 
described  under  the  caption,  How  to  Secure  Ignition 
Economy. 


182  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


The  dynamo  for  charging  the  battery  and  the  motor 
for  starting  the  engine  are  so  constructed  that  it  is 
very  seldom  anything  gets  the  matter  with  them. 

How  to  Practice  Engine  Economy. — When  you 
get  your  car  don’t  try  out  the  engine  by  racing  it,  that 
is  accelerating  it  when  the  car  is  stopped  and  running 
it  spasmodically  at  high  speeds.  There  is  never  a time 
when  you  need  to  do  this  and  it  causes  a lot  of  wear 
that  you  will  be  called  on  to  pay  for  a couple  of  years 
later. 

Your  Private  Economy  Service  Inspection.— 

By  this  I mean  that  you  should  institute  a service  in- 
spection of  your  own  for  the  fulfilment  of  these  two 
ideas,  (1)  to  keep  your  car  tuned  up  to  concert  pitch 
and  (2)  to  effect  as  large  a saving  in  its  operation  as 
possible.  At  the  end  of  the  first  500  miles  and  every 
1000  miles  thereafter  inspect  the  following  items: 

TABLE  OE  INSPECTION  ITEMS 

1.  Lubrication  of  all  points  shown  on  chart. 

2.  Clean  out  oil  reservoir;  refill  with  new  oil. 

3.  See  that  oil  pump  works;  no  leaks. 

4.  Oil  reservoir  gasket. 

5.  Examine  for  carbon;  spark  plugs. 

6.  Adjust  tappets  and  check  clearance. 

7.  Grind  valves  if  needed. 

8.  Valve  cover  plate  gasket  oil  tight 

9.  Water  pump  glands  tight. 

10.  Pump  shaft  and  coupling  secure. 

11.  Oil  hood  lacing;  hood  sockets  tight. 

12.  Clutch  in  adjustment. 

13.  Adjust  fan  belt  tension  and  inspect  fan  bearings. 

14.  Carburetor  throttle  adjustment. 


HOW  TO  RUN  CAR  AT  LEAST  COST 


183 


15.  Motor  secure  in  chassis;  all  motor  bolts. 

16.  Transmission  main  shaft  end  play. 

17.  Rear  axle  pinion  adjustment. 

18.  Rear  axle  drive  shafts  tight. 

19.  Rear  wheels  tight  on  taper. 

20.  External  brake  adjustments. 

21.  Internal  brake  adjustments. 

22.  Universal  joint  covers  tight. 

23.  Steering  worm  thrust  adjustment. 

24.  Steering  worm  wheel  end  play. 

25.  Steering  arm  tight  on  taper. 

26.  Control  levers  on  steering  wheel. 

27.  Drag  link  adjustment. 

28.  Tie  bar  adjustment  tight. 

29.  Front  wheel  bearings  adjustment. 

30.  Tighten  properly  spring  clips. 

31.  Spring  shackle  bolts  tight. 

32.  Lubrication  of  spring  leaves. 

33.  Rims  applied  properly. 

34.  Body  bolts  tight. 

35.  Oil  door  hinges,  locks  and  set  bumpers. 

36.  Repair  top  curtain  fasteners. 

37.  Clean  car  thoroughly. 

38.  Generator  clutch  alignment. 

39.  Generator  bolts  secure. 

40.  Starter  adjustment  secure. 

41.  All  generator  connections  tight. 

42.  Clean  lamp  connectors. 

43.  Distributor  head  cleaned. 

44.  Rotor  button  tension  moderate. 

45.  Ignition  resistance  in  circuit. 

46.  Examine  contact  breaker. 

47.  Test  circuit  breaker. 

48.  Commutators  in  good  condition. 

49.  Check  charging  rate. 

50.  Examine  water  cooling  system. 

51.  General  condition  of  engine. 


184  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


52.  Battery  terminals  and  ground  connections  tight  and 

clean — specific  gravity  correct. 

53.  Inspect  spring  bolts  and  rangers.  Pry  leaves  apart  and 

apply  graphite  grease. 

Your  Company’s  Service  Inspection. — Some  of 
the  companies  have  estahlished  service  inspection  sta- 
tions where  you  can  take  your  car  and  have  an  experi- 
enced man  make  the  inspection  scheduled  in  the  above 
list  of  items  every  month  and  without  cost  to  you. 

The  company  whose  car  you  own  guarantees  it  on  the 
condition  of  adequate  maintenance  on  your  part.  If  a 
part  breaks  because  of  a defect  the  company  will  replace 
it  without  cost  to  you,  but  if  it  breaks  through  any 
fault  of  yours  you  have  to  pay  for  the  replacement. 

Keeping  Your  Car  Spick  and  Span. — Not  only 
do  you  want  your  car  to  run  like  a real  automobile  and 
at  the  smallest  cost  for  up-keep,  but  if  you  are  like  the 
other  999  per  cent  of  owners  it  must  have  class  as 
well. 

Cleaning  the  Top. — To  keep  a car  looking  its  very 
best  it  must  he  washed  in  a certain  way.  Always  clean 
the  top  first.  A mohair  top  can  be  brushed  off  while  a 
pentasote  top  should  he  sponged  off  with  clean  tepid 
water  in  which  a little  ammonia  or  castile  soap  has  been 
added  and  then  rub  it  dry  with  a chamois  skin. 

Washing  the  Body. — Next  wash  the  body  of  the  car 
and  to  get  the  dirt  and  mud  off  without  marring  it  let 
a gentle  stream  of  water  from  the  garden  hose,  from 
which  the  nozzle  has  been  taken  off,  flow  all  over  it,  be- 
ginning at  the  top  and  working  down.  Wait  half  an 
hour  for  it  to  soak  into  the  dirt  and  go  all  over  the  car 


HOW  TO  RUN  CAR  AT  LEAST  COST  185 


again  the  second  time  with  the  hose,  when  the  dirt  will 
be  entirely  washed  away. 

Never  rub  the  painted  surface  of  the  body  with  a 
chamois,  or  anything  else,  until  every  particle  of  dirt 
has  been  washed  off.  If  there  are  grease  spots  on  the 
body  wash  them  off  with  Ivory  soap  and  water  applied 
with  a chamois  and  rinse  the  latter  frequently;  then 
wash  off  the  soap  with  the  hose. 

This  done  soak  a soft  chamois  in  clean  water,  wring 
it  dry  and  wipe  all  of  the  surface  from  the  top  down — 
never  with  a circular  motion — with  the  slightest  pres- 
sure and  let  the  film  of  water  that  remains  evaporate. 

Washing  the  Running  Gear. — Finally  wash  the  run- 
ning gear,  the  mud  guards  and  hood  with  cold  water 
before  the  mud  has  had  time  to  dry  on.  Wash  off  the 
film  of  grease  with  Ivory  soap  and  wash  off  the  suds  im- 
mediately; should  soap  fail  to  cut  the  grease  use  full- 
ers earth  and  water.  Wash  off  and  dry  with  a chamois 
as  before.  Have  a chamois  for  the  body  and  one  for 
the  running  gear  and  never  switch  them.  By  follow- 
ing the  above  directions  your  car  will  look  almost  like 
new  for  a long  time  to  come. 

Some  Useful  Recipes— A Good  Body  Polish. — 
This  polish  will  make  an  old  body  look  as  if  it  had  just 
come  from  the  painters.  Mix  1 gallon  of  turpentine,  1 
pint  of  paraffin  oil,  3^  ounces  of  citronella  oil  and 
11/2  ounces  of  cedar  oil.  Use  a little  at  a time  and  rub  it 
until  it  is  thoroughly  dry.  This  is  far  better  than  mix- 
tures of  linseed  oil  and  kerosene  or  linseed  oil  and  tur- 
pentine. 

A Fine  Leather  Polish. — Beeswax  dissolved  in  tur- 


186  KEEPING  UP  WITH  YOUR  MOTOR  CAR 


pentine  to  the  consistency  of  thin  cream  makes  a fine 
polish  for  leather  upholstery. 

To  Clean  Cloth  Upholstery. — Beat  the  cushions  to 
get  out  the  dust ; grease  or  oil  can  he  removed  by  scour- 
ing it  with  chloroform  and  it  will  not  leave  a circle  after 
it  evaporates.  Ivory  soap  and  water  put  on  with  a 
woolen  cloth  can  also  be  used. 

To  Clean  Nickel  Plated  Parts. — Rub  them  up  with 
lamp-black,  or  powdered  rotten  stone,  mixed  with  a little 
oil  and  put  on  with  a soft  flannel  rag. 

To  Clean  Aluminum. — Wash  the  aluminum  foot 
boards  with  a strong  solution  of  hyposulphate  of  soda 
and  water,  which  will  dissolve  the  aluminum  tarnish, 
and  then  wash  off  with  water  and  dry. 

To  Clean  Lamp  Reflectors. — Don’t  touch  the  lamp  re- 
flectors until  they  become  too  dull  through  long  service 
to  be  useful.  When  they  get  dusty  blow  the  dust  out. 
Polish  old  reflectors  on  which  there  are  spots  or  which 
are  tarnished,  with  red  rouge  and  put  it  on  with  a 
chamois  skin  dampened  with  alcohol.  Wipe  this  off 
with  another  chamois  and  dry  rouge  which  will  give  the 
reflector  a high  polish. 

In  polishing  a reflector  press  very  lightly  on  it  and 
give  the  chamois  a circular  motion.  Old  reflectors 
can  be  re-plated  with  silver  and  burnished,  when  they 
will  be  as  good  as  new. 

To  Clean  Off  Road  Oil. — Rub  with  a soft  rag  dipped 
in  crude  oil ; after  it  is  dry  dampen  another  rag  with 
water,  sprinkle  on  a few  drops  of  alcohol;  rub  off  the 
polished  film  and  give  it  a final  polish  with  a dry  rag. 

To  Clean  Off  Grease  on  Frame  and  Brakes. — Rub  off 


HOW  TO  RUN  CAR  AT  LEAST  COST  187 


with  a rag  dipped  in  clear  turpentine  and  polish  with 
crude  oil.  Don’t  let  the  turpentine  stay  on  any  longer 
than  necessary. 

To  Clean  Windows. — Wash  with  equal  parts  of  soapy 
water  and  wood  alcohol. 

To  Clean  Celluloid. — Wash  with  a piece  of  soft 
cheese  cloth  dipped  in  vinegar. 

A Good  OH  for  Door  Hinges. — Mix  a little  powdered 
graphite  with  linseed  oil. 

To  Keep  the  Windshield  Dry. — You  can  prevent  the 
drops  of  water  from  clinging  to  the  windshield  in  rainy 
or  snowy  weather  by  going  over  the  glass  with  a solution 
made  of  1 ounce  of  water,  2 ounces  of  glycerine  and 
1 dram  of  salt.  Dampen  a piece  of  gauze  with  it  and 
wipe  the  glass  from  the  top  toward  the  bottom  with  it. 

Storing  Your  Car  for  the  Winter. — Should  you 
want  to  store  your  car  for  several  months,  run  it  into 
the  garage,  then  drain  all  the  water  from  the  cooling 
system,  take  off  the  radiator  cap  and  run  the  engine  un- 
til it  is  thoroughly  heated  so  that  every  particle  of 
water  that  may  be  pocketed  in  it  is  evaporated. 

Drain  off  the  gasoline;  take  off  the  tires,  clean  the 
rims  and  give  them  a coat  of  shellac  varnish.  Put 
up  the  top;  fasten  on  all  of  the  curtains  and  cover  the 
whole  top  and  body  with  a slip  made  of  muslin. 


INDEX 


Accelerator  control  of  carbu- 
retor, 87 

Accelerator  pedal,  how  to 
use,  22 

Adjusting  the  brakes,  163 
Adjusting  the  fan,  135 
Advancing  the  spark,  108 
Air  compressors,  86 
Air  cooled  engine,  127 
Air  heaters  for  fuel  mixture, 
86 

Air  pressure  fuel  feed  sys- 
tem, 86 

Air  pumps,  for  pressure 
feed  systems,  87 
Aluminum,  cleaning,  186 
Ammeter,  144 
Amperage,  dry  battery,  94 
storage  battery,  132 
Anti-freezing  solutions,  136 
Aristotle’s  teachings,  11 
Asbestos  packing,  164 
Assembly,  rear  axle,  35 
Auto  cocktail,  165 
Automatic  cut-out  for  chain- 
ing system,  142 
Automobiles.  See  Motor  Cars 
Auxiliary  air  valve  for  car- 
buretor, 81 


Available  power  of  fuel,  93 
Axle,  front,  32 
clips,  34 
rear,  34 

work  on  front,  167 
Axles,  floating  type,  34 

Babbitted  bearings,  71 
Backlash  of  steering  gear,  171 
Back  pressure,  109 
Battery,  dry,  94 
power  of  a dry,  94 
storage,  95 
to  test  a,  95 

See  also  Storage  Battery 
Bearings,  adjusting  the  con- 
necting rod,  167 
adjusting  the  crank  shaft, 
168 

Belt,  putting  on  a new  fan, 
156 

Berline  body,  8 
Blended  casinghead  gasoline, 
89 

Blowout  patches,  154 
Body,  of  a car,  31 
motor  car,  60 
washing  the,  184 
Bodies,  what’s  what  in  car,  7 


190 


INDEX 


Body  polish,  a good,  185 
Brakes,  emergency,  36 
how  to  adjust,  163 
how  to  use  when  ready  to 
go,  21 

make  car  skid,  how,  28 
relining,  172 
service,  36 

Brazing  loose  parts,  169 
Breakdown  on  road,  what  to 
do,  165 

Broken  parts,  repairing,  169 
replacing,  164 
Brougham  body,  8 
Buying  a cheap  car,  3 
Buying  a high-priced  car,  6 
Buying  a medium-priced  car, 
5 

Buying  a motor  car,  1 
on  time  payments,  8 
on  the  deferred  payment 
plan,  13 

the  opulent  man’s  way,  8 
the  salaried  man’s  way,  10 
ways  of,  2 
Buying  a new  car,  3 
Buying  a second-hand  car, 
11 

Cam  gears,  71 
Cam  shaft,  71 
Cantilever  springs,  37 
Car  bodies,  60 
Cars.  See  Motor  Cars 
Carbon,  how  to  remove,  from 
cylinders,  162 

Carbon  scraping  tools,  162 


Carburetion,  a lean  mixture, 
82 

a rich  mixture,  82 
what  it  means,  88 
Carburetor,  accelerator  con- 
trol of,  87 

auxiliary  air  valve  for,  81 
check  valve,  85 
construction  and  operation 
of  a real,  81 

how  it  is  coupled  to  the  en- 
gine, 83 

how  it  is  made  and  works, 
80 

simplest  form  of,  78 
priming  pin  of  a,  84 
Stromberg,  84 
testing  the,  90 
throttle  control  of,  85 
Carburetor  float,  81 
Carburetor  float  chamber,  81 
Carburetor  float  valve,  81 
Carburetor  needle  valve,  81 
Casing,  repairing  blown  out, 
155 

repairing  cut  in,  154 
Casings  and  inner  tubes,  39 
Cuts  in  inner  tube,  repairing, 
153 

Caveat  emptor,  12 
Cylinders  of  engine,  68 
cycle  of  operation  of,  63 
firing  order  of,  67 
jacketed,  129 
reboring,  169 
regrinding,  169 
removing  carbon  from,  162 


INDEX 


191 


Cylinders  of  engine,  water 
jacket  of,  69 
Cellular  radiator,  134 
Celluloid,  cleaning,  187 
Cementless  patches,  153 
Centrifugal  pumps,  132 
Chart,  your  lubricating,  124 
Cheek  valve  of  carburetor,  85 
Chain  drive,  60 
Chains  to  prevent  skidding, 
28 

Chains,  use  of,  179 
Chassis,  31 

Circuit  breaker,  mechanical, 
106 

spark  coil  system,  105 
Circuit  breaker  box,  109 
Cleaning  aluminum,  186 
Cleaning  the  body,  184 
Cleaning  celluloid,  187 
Cleaning  cloth  upholstery, 
186 

Cleaning  off  grease,  186 
Cleaning  lamp  reflectors,  186 
Cleaning  nickel-plated  parts, 
186 

Cleaning  off  road  oil,  186 
Cleaning  the  top,  184 
Cleaning  windows,  187 
Clinch  patching  outfit,  154 
Clincher  rims,  39 
Clover  leaf  body,  7 
Clutch,  cone,  44 
disk  friction,  45 
dry  plate  disk  friction,  46 
friction,  43 

lubricating  cone  type,  123 


Clutch,  lubricating  oil  disk 
type,  123 
magnetic,  46 

oil  immersed  disk  friction, 
46 

Clutch  that  binds,  to  fix  a, 
158 

Clutch  that  slips,  to  fix  a,  158 
Clutch  pedal,  how  to  use,  22 
putting  new  leather  on,  170 
Coefficient  of  horse  power,  75 
Cold  test  oil,  120 
Compound  wound  dynamo, 
140 

Compression,  how  to  test,  158 
Compression  cups,  112 
Cone  clutch,  44 
lubricating,  123 
Connecting  rod,  70 
Connecting  rod  bearings,  ad- 
justing the,  167 
Cooling  system,  adjusting  the 
fan  of,  135 
how  it  works,  127 
keeping  in  good  order,  134 
pump  circulating,  130 
taking  care  of  the  pump, 
136 

thermo-syphon,  129 
what  to  do  when  winter 
comes,  136 

combination  fan  and  water, 
134 

pumps  for,  131 
radiators  for,  132 
Cooling  systems,  anti-freez- 
ing solutions  for,  136 


192 


INDEX 


Coupe  body,  7 
Convertible  coupe  body,  7 
Convertible  sedan  body,  8 
Convertible  touring  car  body, 
7 

Coupelet  body,  7 
Cracked  gasoline,  89 
Crank  pin,  71 
Crank  shaft,  71 
torque  of,  64 

Crank  shaft  bearings,  ad- 
justing the,  168 
Critical  temperature  of  fuel 
mixture,  89 

Deferred  payment  plan,  buy- 
ing on  the,  13 
Demonstrator,  the,  14 
how  to  treat,  14 
lessons  from,  14 
Demountable  rim,  42 
Differential,  when  car  is  run- 
ning, 30 
testing  the,  172 
what  to  lubricate  with,  124 
Differential  gear,  56 
Dinosaurus,  the,  24 
Diseases  of  the  engine  and 
how  to  cure  them,  73 
Disk  friction  clutch,  45 
Disorders  of  the  ignition  sys- 
tem and  how  to  treat 
them,  109 

Distributor  for  a magneto  ig- 
nition system,  104 
Distributor  for  a multi-cylin- 
der engine,  100 


Distributor  system,  the,  105 
Dominant  idea,  the,  1 
Drive  chain,  60 
final,  56 

Driving,  on  bad  roads,  27 
how  to  take  a curve,  24 
to  prevent  car  skidding, 
28 

road  rules,  28 
Dry  battery,  94 
Dual  ignition  system,  105 
Dynamo,  automatic  cut-out 
for,  142 

compound  wound,  140 
how  output  is  regulated, 
143 

how  made,  140 
series  wound,  140 
shunt  wound,  140 
Dynamo  for  charging  storage 
battery,  138 

Economy,  how  to  practice,  182 
how  to  secure  ignition,  180 
fuel,  how  obtained,  180 
oil,  how  worked,  180 
speed,  175 

in  starting  and  lighting  sys- 
tems, 181 
tire,  175 

in  the  water  system,  179 
Economy  service  inspection, 
private,  182 

Eight  cylinder  engines,  77 
Electric  charging  system, 
automatic  cut-out  for, 
142 


INDEX 


193 


Electric  current,  how  meas- 
ured, 143 
Electric  fuse,  146 
Electric  horn,  how  wired  up, 
146 

Electric  lamps  connected  in 
parallel,  145 
how  wired  up,  145 
how  protected,  146 
sources  of  current  for,  146 
Electric  lighting  system,  138 
Electric  lights,  138 
Electric  motors,  61-147 
Electric  safety  valve,  146 
Electric  spark  ignition,  94 
Electric  starter,  147 
motor  drive  for,  148 
Electric  starters,  138 
Electric  starting  system,  147 
Electric  welding  process,  170 
Electrotype  for  storage  bat- 
tery, 96 

Emergency  brakes,  36 
Engine,  advantage  of  multi- 
cylinder, 76 
air  cooled,  127 
babbitted  bearings  for,  71 
cam  gears  for,  71 
cam  shaft  for,  71 
connecting  rod  for,  170 
crank  pin  for,  71 
crank  shaft  for,  71 
cylinders  of  an,  68 
diseases  of,  and  how  to 
cure,  73 

distributor  for  a multi- 
cylinder, 100 


Engine,  exhaust  gases  of,  68 
firing  order  of  cylinders  of 
an,  67 

gaskets  for,  73 
gasoline,  61 

gasoline  system  of  an,  78 
how  it  is  built,  68 
how  to  calculate  horse  pow- 
er of  an,  75 

how  a carburetor  is  coupled 
to  an,  83 
how  to  start,  18 
how  the  valves  work,  66 
how  it  works,  61 
how  to  stop  the,  24 
inlet  and  exhaust  valves 
for,  71 

manifolds  for,  72 
muffler  gear  of,  68,  73 
multi-cylinder,  64 
oiling  the,  112 
parts  of  a gasoline,  62 
piston  of,  69 

piston  or  wrist  pin  of,  70 
piston  rings  of,  69 
piston  speed  gear  of,  76 
power  stroke  of  an,  63 
power  strokes  of  multi- 
cylinder, 62 

scored  cylinder  walls  of, 
119 

shims  for  connecting  rod  of, 
70 

six-cylinder,  77 
timer  for  a single  cylinder, 
99 

timing  gears  of  an,  66 


194 


INDEX 


Engine,  timing  the  valves  of, 
66 

twelve-cylinder,  77 
water  cooled,  128 
what  to  do  when  it  knocks, 
110 

what  to  do  when  started, 
21 

what  to  do  when  it  won’t 
stop,  110 

what  to  do  when  it  won’t 
start,  73,  91,  109,  121 
when  action  is  irregular, 
74,  92 

when  explosions  occur  in 
the  muffler,  75 
when  explosions  are  regu- 
lar but  weak,  74 
when  it  hisses,  74,  110 
when  it  misfires,  74,  92 
when  it  overheats,  75,  122 
when  it  races,  92 
when  it  smokes,  73 
when  it  stops,  122 

Engine  economy,  how  to  prac- 
tice, 182 

Engine  hisses,  how  to  get  rid 
of,  122 

Engine  lubrication,  kinds  of 
oil,  119 

Engine  misfires,  what  to  do 
when,  110,  122 

Engine  smoke,  how  to  get  rid 
of,  122 

Engines,  eight  cylinder,  77 
latest  word  in,  76 
lubricating  systems  for,  113 


Equalizing  tractor,  30 
Exhaust  gases  of  engine,  68 
Exhaust  and  inlet  valves,  71 

Fan,  adjusting  the,  135 
Fan  belt,  putting  on  a new, 
156 

Fan  and  water  cooling  sys- 
tems combined,  134 
Final  drive,  differential,  56 
Firing  order  of  cylinders,  67 
Fixing  the  radiator,  155 
Fixing  spark  plugs,  156 
Float  for  carburetor,  81 
Float  chamber  for  carbu- 
retor, 81 

Floating  type  of  axles,  34 
Float  valve  for  carburetor, 
81 

Force  feed  lubricating  sys- 
tem, 113,  116 
Force  feed  pumps,  132 
Formula  for  calculating  the 
horse  power  of  an  en- 
gine, 75 
Frame,  31 

straightening  the,  167 
what  it  is  made  of  and  how, 
32 

Friction  clutch,  43 
Friction  clutch  disk,  45 
Friction  wheel  transmission, 
49 

Front  axle,  32 

Fuel  charge,  how  it  is  fired,  94 
Fuel  economy,  how  obtained, 
180 


INDEX 


195 


Fuel  feed  system,  air  pres- 
sure, 86 
gravity,  86 
vacuum,  87 

Fuel  feed  systems,  86 
Fuel  losses,  table  of,  93 
Fuel  mixture,  61,  78 

air  and  gasoline  heaters 
for,  86 

critical  temperature  of,  89 
lean,  82,  89 
rich,  82,  89 

when  there  is  a decrease  in 
power,  92 

when  there  are  explosions 
in  the  muffler,  92 
when  the  engine  misfires,  92 
when  the  engine  races,  92 
Fuel  power  of  gasoline,  93 
Fuel  power,  where  it  goes,  93 
Fuel  system,  testing  the  car- 
buretor, 90 

troubles  with,  and  how  to 
fix  them,  90 

what  to  do  when  the  en- 
gine knocks,  91 
what  to  do  when  the  engine 
stops,  91 
what  it  is,  78 
when  the  action  of  the  en- 
gine is  irregular,  92 
when  the  engine  won’t 
start,  91 

when  the  explosions  are 
regular  but  weak,  91 
See  also  Gasoline  Fuel  Sys- 
tem 


Fuller’s  earth,  185 

Full  force  feed  system,  116 

Fuse,  146 

Gaskets,  73 
how  to  make,  163 
Gasoline,  air  pressure  feed 
system,  pumps  for,  86 
about  buying,  89 
available  power  of,  93 
blended  casinghead,  89 
cracked,  89 

specific  gravity  of,  90 
straight  refinery,  89 
synthetic,  89 

Gasoline  carburetor,  how  a 
nozzle  forms  a jet,  78 
simplest  form  of,  78 
Gasoline  engine,  61 
parts  of,  62 

Gasoline  feed  system,  grav- 
ity, 86 

air  pressure,  86 
Gasoline  fuel  system,  what  it 
is,  78 

See  also  Fuel  System 
Gasoline  fuel  feed  systems, 
86 

Gasoline  fuel  mixture,  78 
fuel  power  of,  93 
Gasoline  heaters,  86 
how  to  buy,  89 
hydrometer  for  testing,  90 
Gasoline  pipe,  stopping  leaks 
in,  156 

Gasoline  system,  air  and  gas- 
oline heaters,  86 


196 


INDEX 


Gasoline  system,  how  carbu- 
retor is  made  and 
works,  80 
how  it  works,  78 
how  the  spray  is  formed,  78 
lean  mixture,  89 
rich  mixture,  89 
Gasoline  system  of  an  engine, 
78 

Gasoline  tanks,  78 

vacuum  feed  system,  87 
Gauge,  oil  pressure,  119 
Gear,  when  running  on  high, 
22 

shifting  when  started,  21 
steeling,  32 

transmission,  planetary,  53 
transmission,  sliding,  50 
Gear  compound,  how  it  is 
made,  123 
differential,  56 
Gear  oil  pump,  118 
Gear  shifting  table,  17 
Gear  shifts,  17 
Gear  water  pump,  132 
Gears,  cam,  71 
changing,  22 
how  they  mesh,  123 
replacing  transmission,  171 
transmission,  43 
transmission  charge,  49 
Geared  dynamo  for  charging 
storage  battery,  138 
Gravity  fuel  feed  system,  86 
Grease  cups,  112 
cleaning  off,  186 
Grounded  electric  system,  145 


Grounded,  primary  coil,  103 
the  spark  plug,  99 
Gudgeon  or  wrist  pin,  168 

Hisses,  what  to  do  when  the 
engine,  74,  122 
Hollow  spoke  wheels,  37 
Honeycomb  radiator,  132 
Horn,  electric,  how  wired  up, 
146 

Horse  power  of  an  engine, 
how  to  calculate  the, 
75 

Horse  power  of  engines,  42 
How  to  adjust  the  brakes,  163 
How  the  automatic  cut-out 
works,  142 

How  the  auxiliary  air  valve 
of  carburetor  works,  82 
How  to  back  a car,  25 
How  to  buy  gasoline,  89 
How  to  buy  a motor  car,  1 
How  to  calculate  the  horse 
power  of  an  engine,  75 
How  the  carburetor  is  cou- 
pled to  the  engine,  83 
How  a carburetor  is  made,  80 
How  a carburetor  works,  SO 
How  the  cooling  system 
works,  127 

How  to  crank  a ear,  20 
How  to  cure  diseases  of  the 
engine,  73 

How  the  differential  works,  57 
How  to  drive  a car,  15 
How  to  drive  on  bad  roads,  27 
How  a dynamo  is  made,  140 


INDEX 


197 


How  electric  current  is  meas- 
ured, 143 

How  the  electric  motor  drive 
works,  148 

How  the  engine  is  built,  68 
How  the  engine  is  oiled,  112 
How  the  engine  works,  61, 
63 

How  to  equalize  traction,  30 
How  to  fix  troubles  with  the 
fuel  system,  90 
How  the  frame  is  made,  32 
How  the  friction  clutch 
works,  44 

How  a friction  gear  trans- 
mission works,  55 
How  the  fuel  charge  is  fired, 
94 

How  to  be  good  to  your 
tires,  177 

How  the  gasoline  system 
works,  78 

How  to  get  rid  of  engine 
hisses,  122 

How  to  get  rid  of  engine 
smoke,  122 

How  to  go  down  hill,  27 
How  to  go  up  hill,  25 
How  the  ignition  system 
works,  94 

How  the  lighting  system 
works,  138 

How  the  magneto  works,  102 
How  the  magnetic  clutch 
works,  47 

How  to  make  good  gaskets, 
163 


How  a nozzle  forms  a jet,  79 
How  the  oiling  system  works, 
112 

How  to  prevent  a car  from 
skidding,  28 

How  to  prevent  engine  from 
misfiring,  122 

How  a planetary  gear  trans- 
mission works,  53 
How  a radiator  is  made,  132 
How  a real  carburetor  is 
made,  81 

How  a real  carburetor  works, 
81 

How  to  repair  a tire,  153 
How  to  run  your  car  at  the 
least  cost,  174 
How  to  seat  a valve,  160 
How  to  shift  the  gears,  21 
How  a sliding  gear  trans- 
mission works,  51 
How  to  slow  down  a ear,  23 
How  a spark  coil  is  made,  97 
How  a spark  coil  makes  a 
spark,  97 

How  a spark  plug  is  made, 
99 

How  a spray  of  gasoline  is 
made,  79 

How  to  start  the  engine,  18 
How  the  starting  system 
works,  138 

How  to  stop  a car,  23 
How  to  stop  the  engine,  24 
How  a storage  battery  is 
charged,  138 

How  to  take  a curve,  24 


198 


INDEX 


How  to  take  care  of  your 
ear  in  winter,  136 

How  to  test  a storage  bat- 
tery, 139 

How  to  treat  a demon- 
strator, 14 

How  the  universal  joint 
works,  48 

How  to  use  clutch  pedal,  22 

How  the  valves  work,  6 

Hydrometer  for  testing  gaso- 
line, 90 

Hydrometer  for  testing  stor- 
age battery,  139 

Ignition,  electric  spark,  94 

Ignition  disorders,  what  to  do 
when  engine  hisses,  110 
when  the  engine  misfires, 
110 

when  the  engine  overheats, 
110 

when  explosions  occur  in 
muffler,  110 

when  the  explosions  are 
regular  but  weak,  110 
when  engine  knocks,  HO 

Ignition  distributor  system, 
105 

Ignition  economy,  how  to  se- 
cure, 180 

Ignition  system,  advancing 
the  spark  of,  108 
circuit  breaker  for  a spark 
coil,  105 

disorders  of  and  how  to 
treat  them,  109 


Ignition  system,  distributor 
for  circuit  breaker, 
107 

distributor  for  a magneto, 
104 

distributor  for  a multi- 
cylinder  engine,  100 
dry  battery  for,  94 
dual,  105 

high  tension  magneto  for, 
103 

how  it  works,  94 
how  the  magneto  works, 
102 

interrupter  for  a magneto, 
103 

mechanical  circuit  breaker 
for,  106 
spark  plug,  97 
storage  battery  for,  94 
timer  for  a single-cylinder 
engine,  99 

vibrator  spark  coil,  94,  97 
what  to  do  when  engine 
stops,  110 

what  to  do  when  the  engine 
won’t  start,  109 
why  the  spark  must  be 
fired,  108 

Ignition  system  magneto,  101 
Ignition  systems,  kinds  of, 
94 

Implements  you  need,  152 
Inflating  tires,  176 
Inlet  and  exhaust  valves,  71 
Inner  tube,  how  to  repair  an, 
153 


INDEX 


199 


Inner  tube,  repairing  cuts  and 
punctures  in,  153 
repairing  large  cuts  and 
punctures  in,  154 
Inner  tube  patches,  154 
Inner  tubes  and  casings,  39 
Interruptor  for  a high  ten- 
sion magneto,  103 
Irregular,  -what  to  do  when 
action  of  engine  is,  74 

Jacketed  cylinders,  129 
Junction  box,  146 

Keeping  a car  spick  and 
span,  184 

Kinds  of  cars  to  buy,  2 
Knight  engine,  77 
Knocks,  what  to  do  when  en- 
gine, 75,  110 

Lamp  reflectors,  cleaning,  186 
Lamps.  See  Electric  Lamps 
Landaulet  body,  8 
Lead  and  lag  of  valves,  67 
Leak  around  spark  plug,  to 
fix  a,  156 

Leaks  in  gasoline  pipe,  stop- 
ping, 156 

Leaks  in  radiator,  stopping 
up,  155 

Leaks  in  water  pump,  fixing, 
156 

Lean  fuel  mixture,  82,  89 
Learning  to  drive  your  car,  14 
Lighting  system,  how  it 
works,  138 

Lighting  system  economy,  181 


Limousine  body,  8 
Lock  washers,  157 
Lubricating  the  universal 
joints  with,  what  to, 
124 

Lubricating  the  differential 
with,  what  to,  124 
Lubricating  chart,  your,  124 
Lubricating  the  clutch,  cone 
type,  123 
oil  disk  type,  123 
Lubricating  a motor  car, 
112 

See  also  Oiling 
Lubricating  oils,  what  made 
of,  121 

Lubricating  schedule,  your, 
124 

Lubricating  the  transmission, 
123 

Lubricating  system,  force 
feed,  113,  116 
splash  circulating,  114 
splash  and  force  feed,  115 
straight  splash,  113 
Lubricating  systems,  kinds 
of,  113 

Lubrication,  cold  test  oil,  120 
kind  of  oil  to  use,  120 
oil  pressure  gauge,  119 
oil  pressure,  118 
oil  pump,  118 

Lubrication  troubles,  what  to 
do  when  the  engine 
hisses,  122 

when  the  engine  misfires, 
122 


200 


INDEX 


Lubrication  troubles,  what  to 
do  when  the  engine 
overheats,  122 
when  the  engine  smokes, 
122 

when  the  engine  stops,  122 
when  the  engine  won’t 
start,  121 

when  the  explosions  are 
weak  but  regular,  122 
where  to  buy  oil,  121 

Magnetic  clutch,  46 
Magneto,  high  tension,  103 
high  tension  magneto  in- 
terruptor,  103 
how  it  works,  102 
low  tension,  101 
Magneto  ignition  system,  101 
distributor  for,  104 
Manifolds  for  engine,  72 
Mechanical  circuit  breaker, 
106 

Misfires,  what  to  do  when  en- 
gine, 74,  110,  122 
Motor  car  bodies,  how  built, 
60 

what’s  what  in,  7 
Motor  car,  buying  on  the  de- 
ferred payment  plan, 
13 

buying  a medium-priced,  5 
buying  a new,  3 
buying  a second-hand,  11 
buying  on  time  payments,  8 
how  to  buy,  1 
how  to  drive,  15 


Motor  car,  how  to  slow  down, 
23 

how  to  stop,  23 
keeping  it  spick  and  span, 
184 

learning  to  drive  a,  14 
lubricating,  112 
opulent  man’s  way  to  buy 
a,  8 

overhauling  a,  172 
parts  of,  31 

salaried  man’s  way  to  buy 
a,  10 

storing  for  winter,  187 
transmission,  43 
ways  to  buy  a,  2 
what  to  do  when  ready  to 
go,  21 

Motor  car  dealers,  9 
Motor  car  demonstrator,  14 
Motor  car  driving,  what  to 
do  first,  16 

Motor  car  engines,  42 
Motor  car  lessons,  15 
Motor  car  power  plants,  42 
Motor  car  road  work.  16 
Motor  car  springs,  37 
Motor  car  wheels,  37 
Motor  care,  rebuilt,  13 
Motor  cars  costing  less  than 
$1,000,  table  of,  4 
kinds  of,  to  buy,  2 
Motor  drive  for  starter,  14S 
Muffler  of  engine,  68,  73 
Muffler,  what  to  do  when  ex- 
plosions occur  in  the, 
75,  92,  110 


INDEX 


201 


Multi-cylinders,  advantage 
of,  76 

Multi-cylinder  engines,  64 

Needle  valve  of  carburetor, 
81 

Nickel-plated  parts,  cleaning, 
186 

Nuts,  to  loosen  tight,  157 
to  make  them  hold  tight, 
157 

Oiling  the  engine,  112 
See  also  Lubricating  Sys- 
tems 

Oiling  a motor  car,  113 
See  also  Lubricating  Sys- 
tems 

Oil,  cleaning  off  road,  186 
cold  test,  120 
kinds  to  use,  120 
where  to  buy  good,  121 
Oil  disk  clutch,  lubricating, 
123 

Oil  for  door  hinges,  187 
Oil  economy,  how  it  is 
worked,  180 
Oil  pressure,  118 
Oil  pressure  gauge,  119 
Oil  pump,  how  made,  118 
One  wire  system,  145 
Open  limousine  body,  8 
Open  sedan  body,  8 
Overhauling  your  car,  172 
Overheats,  what  to  do  when 
engine,  75,  110,  122 
Oxy-acetylene  welding  proc- 
ess, 170 


Parallel,  electric  lamps,  con- 
nected, 145 
Parts  of  a car,  31 
Patches,  blow  out,  154 
cementless,  153 
inner  tube,  154 
self-vulcanizing,  153 
Patching  outfit,  154 
Petroleum,  121 
Piston  of  engine,  69 
Piston  pin,  70 
Piston  rings,  69 
putting  in  new,  163 
Piston  speed  of  an  engine, 
76 

Planetary  gear  transmission, 
53 

Platform  springs,  37 
Plugs,  puncture,  154 
Polish,  a fine  leather,  185 
a good  body,  185 
Positive  feed  pumps,  132 
Power  plant,  31,  42 
Power  of  a dry  battery, 
94 

Pressure  gauge,  oil,  119 
Prime  movers,  61 
Priming  pin  of  a carburetor, 
84 

Propeller  shaft,  55 
twisted  or  broken,  171 
Pump,  circulating  water* 
cooling  system,  130 
centrifugal,  132 
gear,  132 

taking  care  of  the,  136 
toothed  wheel,  132 


202 


INDEX 


Pump,  water,  what  to  lubri- 
cate with,  124 

Pumps,  fixing  leaks  in  water 
pumps,  156 

for  air  pressure  feed  sys- 
tems, 87 

positive  or  force  feed, 
132 

rotary  water,  132 
Pumps  for  cooling  systems, 
131 

Puncture  plugs,  153 
Punctures,  repairing  nail 
hole,  153 

Punctures  and  small  cuts,  re- 
pairing, 153 
Push  rod,  72 

Quick  detachable  rim,  40 
Quick  repairs  for  the  road, 
154 

Radiator  fillers,  155 
Radiator,  fixing  the,  155 
cellular,  134 
how  made,  132 
keeping  in  good  order,  134 
repairing  the,  167 
stopping  up  a leaky,  155 
tubular,  133 

Radiator  cap,  to  loosen  a 
stuck,  155 
Rear  axle,  34 
Reboring  cylinders,  169 
Rebrazing  loose  parts,  169 
Rebuilt  cars,  13 
Recipes,  some  useful,  185 


Reflectors,  cleaning  lamp, 
186 

Regrinding  cylinders,  169 
Relining  brakes,  172 
Removable  wheel,  42 
Remy  ignition  system,  108 
Repair  an  inner  tube,  how  to, 
153 

Repair  a tire,  how  to,  153 
Repairing  blown  out  casing, 
155 

Repairing  broken  parts,  169 
Repairing  cut  in  casing,  155 
Repairing  cuts  in  inner  tube, 
153 

Repairing  large  cuts  and 
punctures  in  inner 
tube,  154 

Repairing  nail  hole  punc- 
tures, 153 

Rich  fuel  mixture,  82,  89 
Rim,  demountable,  42 
quick  detachable,  40 
Rims,  plain  clincher,  39 
Rims  and  tires,  38 
Road  rules,  28 
Road  work,  motor  car,  16 
Roadster  body,  7 
Rotary  water  pumps,  132 
Rules  of  the  road,  28 
Running  gear,  31 
washing  the,  185 

Salon  touring  car  body,  7 
Schedule,  your  lubricating, 
124 

Scored  cylinder  walls,  119 


INDEX 


203 


Screws,  to  loosen  tight,  157 
Seating  capacity,  extra,  174 
Sedan  body,  7 
Selden’s  self-moving  car,  11 
Series  wound  dynamo,  140 
Service  brakes,  36 
Service  inspection,  private 
economy,  182 
your  company’s,  184 
Shaft,  propeller,  55 
Shifting  the  gears,  21 
Shims,  for  connecting  rod, 
70 

Shop  practice  versus  sharp 
practice,  169 

Shunt  wound  dynamo,  140 
Six  cylinder  engines,  77 
Skidding  of  cars,  how  to  pre- 
vent, 28 

Sliding  gear  transmission, 
50 

Slow  down  a car,  how  to,  23 
Smokes,  what  to  do  when  en- 
gine, 74,  122 

Spark,  advancing  the,  108 
Spark  coil  for  ignition,  97 
Spark  coil  ignition  system, 
94 

circuit  breaker  for,  105 
Spark  plug,  to  clean  a,  156 
how  it  is  made,  99 
Spark  plug  leak,  fixing,  156 
Spark  plugs,  fixing,  156 
Spark  and  throttle  lever  po- 
sitions, 19 

Spark,  why  it  must  be  timed, 
108 


Specific  gravity  of  gasoline, 
90 

Speed  economy,  what  it 
means,  175 

Speed  of  a piston,  76 
Speed  selector  gates,  18 
Spring,  cantilever,  37 
platform,  37 
Springs,  all  kinds,  34 
replacing  valve,  160 
stretching  valve,  160 
Splash  circulating  lubricat- 
ing system,  114 
Splash  and  force  feed  lubri- 
cating system,  115 
Splash  lubricating  systems, 
113 

Soapstone,  on  the  use  of, 
179 

Start,  what  to  do  when  en- 
gine won’t,  73,  109,  121 
Starting  a car,  by  cranking, 
20 

Starting  motor  economy,  181 
Starting  with  a self  starter, 
20 

Starting  system,  how  it 
works,  138 
Steam  engines,  61 
Steering  gear,  32 
fixing  the,  170 
Steering  gear  assembly,  34 
Stop  a car,  how  to,  23 
Stop,  what  to  do  when  en- 
gine won’t,  110 
Stops  on  the  road,  when  your 
car,  151 


204 


INDEX 


Stops,  when  engine,  122 
Storage  battery,  95 
how  it  is  charged,  138 
to  test  a,  96 

Storage  battery  electrolyte,  96 
Storing  your  car  for  the  win- 
ter, 187 

Straight  refinery  gasoline,  89 
Stromberg  carburetor,  84 
Supplies  that  come  in  handy, 
152 

Suspension,  35 
Synthetic  gasoline,  89 

Table  of  cars  costing  less 
than  $1,000,  4 
Table  of  fuel  losses,  93 
Table  of  gear  shifts,  17 
Table  of  inspection  items, 
182 

Table  for  tire  inflation,  177 
Tank  for  gasoline,  78 
Toppet,  72 

Testing  storage  battery,  139 
Test  and  trouble  lamp  for 
storage  battery,  139 
Thermo-syphon  cooling  sys- 
tem, 129 

Things  you  ought  to  carry, 
152 

Throttle  control  of  carbure- 
tor, 85 

Throttle  and  spark  lever  po- 
sitions, 19 

Throttle  and  spark  levers 
when  engine  is  running, 
21 


Timer  for  single  cylinder  en«= 
gine,  99 

Timing  gears,  66 
Timing  the  valves,  66,  167 
Tire,  laced  band  for,  154 
repairing  while  you  wait, 
153 

Tire  caliper,  176 
Tire  don’ts,  177 
Tire  economy,  how  it  is  had, 
175 

Tire  inflation  table,  177 
Tire  sleeve,  154 
Tires,  buying  new,  179 

how  to  be  good  to  your, 
177 

keeping  them  in  repair, 
179 

non-skid,  176 
oversize,  175 
proper  inflation  of,  176 
size  to  use,  175 
Tires  and  rims,  38 
Tools  you  should  have,  152 
Toothed  wheel  pump,  132 
Top,  cleaning  the,  1S4 
Torque  of  a crank  shaft,  64 
Touring  car  body,  7 
Traction,  how  to  equalize. 
30 

Transmission,  31,  49 
change  gears,  43,  49 
friction  wheel,  49,  54 
lubricating  the,  123 
planetary  gear,  53 
sliding  gear,  50 
Transmission  assembly,  53 


INDEX 


205 


Transmission  gears,  replac- 
ing, 171 

Transmission  mechanism,  43 
Trouble,  finding  the,  151 
Troubles  of  the  oiling  sys- 
tem, how  to  get  rid  of 
them,  121 

Tubular  radiator,  133 
Twelve-cylinder  engines,  77 
Two- wire  system,  145 

Upholstery,  cleaning  cloth, 
186 

Universal  joint,  48 
Universal  joints,  taking  care 
of,  171 

what  to  lubricate  with,  124 

Vacuum  fuel  feed  system, 
87 

Valve  for  carburetor,  auxil- 
iary air,  81 
check,  85 
float,  81 
needle,  81 

Valve,  electric  safety,  146 
to  tell  when  it  is  seated 
right,  160 
Valve  guide,  72 
Valve  head,  72 
Valve  springs,  replacing, 
160 

stretching,  160 
Valve  stem,  72 
Valves,  of  an  engine,  66 
how  to  grind  them,  159 
how  to  take  them  out,  159 


Valves,  how  to  test  compres- 
sion, 158 

inlet  and  exhaust,  71 
of  a Knight  engine,  77 
lead  and  lag  of,  67 
timing  the,  167 
when  they  need  grinding, 
158 

Vibrator  spark  coil,  97 
Vibrator  spark  coil  ignition 
system,  94 

Voltage  of  dry  battery,  95 
Voltage  of  storage  battery, 
138 

Voltmeter  for  testing  storage 
battery,  139 

Washing  the  body,  184 
Washing  the  running  gear, 
185 

Water  cooled  engine,  128 
Water  and  fan  cooling  sys- 
tems combined,  134 
Water  jacket  of  cylinders, 
69 

Water  pumps,  kinds  of,  131 
what  to  lubricate  with,  124 
Water  system  economy,  177 
Ways  to  buy  a car,  2 
Weak  explosions,  what  to  do 
for,  74 

Welding  broken  parts,  169 
What  to  do,  before  you  start, 
16 

when  action  of  engine  is  ir- 
regular, 74,  92 
when  car  skids,  28 


206 


INDEX 


Wiiat  to  do,  when  engine  ex- 
plosions are  regular  but 
weak,  74,  91 

when  engine  hisses,  74,  110 
when  engine  knocks,  75,  91, 
110 

when  the  engine  misfires, 
74,  92,  110 

when  engine  overheats,  75, 
110 

when  the  engine  races,  92 
when  engine  smokes,  74 
when  engine  won’t  start,  73, 
91,  109 

when  the  engine  stops,  91, 
110 

when  explosions  occur  hi 
muffler,  75,  92, 110 
when  the  explosions  are 
regular  but  weak.  110 
when  ready  to  go,  21 
when  there  is  a decrease  in 
power,  92 

What  you  can  fix  on  your 
car,  151 

What  not  to  do,  15S 

What’s  what  in  car  bodies, 

7 


When  your  car  is  in  the 
garage,  158 

When  you  have  a breakdown 
on  the  road,  165 
Wheel,  removable,  42 
Wheels,  37 

Why  the  spark  must  be 
timed,  108 

Windows,  cleaning,  187 
Windshield,  to  keep  dry, 
187 

Winter,  how  to  take  care  of 
your  car  in,  136 
storing  your  car  for  the, 
187* 

when  zero  weather  sets  hi, 
136 

Winter  weather,  anti-freez- 
ing solutions  for,  136 
Wire,  proper  size  for  electiic 
lamps,  146 
Wire  wheels,  38 
Wiring  up  electric  lamps,  145 
Wood  wheels,  3S 
Wrist  pin,  70 

Zero  weather,  when  it  sets  in, 
136 


(5) 


00  i Cord 


